GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA CENTRAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIBRARY ACCESSION NO. 3746£__ CALL No. 2.94 ■ 4-Z Wj ra t ?? 1 SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF LONDON London Oriental Series Volume 14 LONDON ORIENTAL SERIES • VOLUME 14 JAINA YOGA A SURVEY OF THE MEDIAEVAL SrAVAKAcArAS hA BY R. WILLIAMS /W Xi'v * i B DelJaiira m. J t w* *1$ ■ Williams , 19 6 3 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN r f, AtPCi 1 • U - A**. HeS-7 H..&2 Date . 1 A , t r. . £. • Cal Mo A .mmsm PMLMS. PREFACE V <4 Y JL l 4 i !:■ The work here presented is an attempt to examine the contents of the principal Jaina sravakacaras . As these texts are not well known and often not easily accessible, some information about their authors has also been given and a few excerpts, designed to show the extent to which one writer depends on another, have been included in an appendix. It will be noted that, to avoid confusion, all technical terms em- ployed have been given in Sanskrit even in cases where an original Prakrit form has been falsely sanskritized. A certain amount of repetition has been imposed by the plan of the work, and it can only be hoped that this has been kept to a minimum. I should like to express my gratitude to Professor W. Schubring, who very kindly lent me his own copy of the Sravaka-prajnapti , the basic Svetambara text on bavakacara , when he learned that I was unable to procure the work from any other source. Finally I wish to acknowledge the generous assistance pro- vided by the authorities of the School of Oriental and African Studies who have included this book in the London Oriental Series and met the full cost of its publication. CONTENTS Preface y Introduction xi Bibliography xxvii Authors — Svetambara sampradaya i Authors — Digambara sampradaya 17 The Ratna-traya 32 Categories of dravakas 36 Categories of food 39 Samyaktva and mithyatva 4i The Mula-gunas 50 The Vratas 55 The Ahimsa-vrata 64 The Satya-vrata 7i The Asteya-vrata 78 The Brahma-vrata 84 The Aparigraha-yrata 93 The Dig-vrata 99 The Bhogopabhoga-parimana-vrata 102 Ratri-bhojana 107 The Abhaksyas no The Ananta-kayas 113 The Professions 1 17 The Anartha-danda-vrata 123 CONTENTS The Samayika-vrata *3* The Desavakasika-vrata r 39 The Posadhopavasa-vrata 142 The Dana-vrata 149 The Sallekhana-vrata 166 The Pratimas 172 The Dina-carya 182 The Necessary Duties 184 The Namaskara i«S The Caitya-vandana 187 The Vandanaka 199 Pratikramana and Alocana 203 Pratyakhyana 207 The Kayotsarga 213 The Puja 216 The Asatanas 225 Pramada 229 The Yatra 232 The Caitya 236 Svadhyaya 237 Tapas 238 Dhyana 239 Vinaya and Vaiyavrttya 241 The Anupreksas 244 The Bhavanas 245 The Kaias 246 CONTENTS ix The Seven Vyasanas HI The Gatis 251 The Sravaka-gunas 256 The Kriyas 274 Appendix 288 INTRODUCTION When Hemacandra gave to his treatise on the rules of conduct for laymen and ascetics the name of Yoga-sastra he intended to convey that it covered the whole religious striving — what in Wes- tern terms might be rendered as a walking in righteousness all the days of one’s life. Though he may have chosen this title in order to stimulate the interest of his royal patron, who appears to have been attached to yogic practices, it is normal Svetambara usage to equate the term yoga with the ratna-traya , that combination of right belief, right knowledge, and right conduct on which the practice of Jainism is based. It is to a consideration of havaka- dharma or fravakacara, the corpus of rules which have been elaborated to regulate the daily life of a layman, that this survey will be restricted. The term sravakacara , current among the Digambaras but un- known, it would seem, to the Svetambaras, serves both as a general name for the topic and as a title for individual expositions designed to serve as breviaries for the householder and composed on parallel lines to the yaty-acaras which explain the duties of monks. These treatises though to some extent they form a counterpart to the Hindu dharma-iastras do not embrace as wide a range of contents. For sravakacara the Digambaras also employ the synonym upasakd- dhyayana , which is their name for the lost anga corresponding to the 3vetambara Updsaka-dasah . According to the Sat-khandagama 1 this dealt with the eleven pratimas , the conferment of the vratas , and the proper way of carrying them out. A later account 2 of the lost angas expands this enumeration and includes in the subject- matter the pratimas , dana, puja, sangha-seva, vrata , guna f iila , and kriya: in view of the ambivalence of some of these terms the delimitation remains imprecise. Sravaka, upasaka , sramanopasa- ka } grhin, sagdra , desa-samyamin , desa-virata, sraddha (this last a purely 3vetambara usage) are amongst the names applied indiffer- ently, at least in the mediaeval period, to the lay disciple whose partial or limited vows of good conduct form the subject of the bavaMcdras. 1 Vol. i, p. loz. 2 Anga-prajnapti of &ubhacandra, pp. 44-46. INTRODUCTION The term mediaeval is purely one of convenience, for Jaina history may usefully be separated into three divisions. To the early period — the dark age covering the first millennium — belong the whole of the Svetambara canon and such fundamental Digambara works as the Prabhrtas of Kundakunda and the Tattvartha-sutra. The middle, or mediaeval, period extending from the fifth to the end of the thirteenth century is the most important historically and sees the greatest achievements in art and literature. Jaina groups and individuals in various parts of western and southern India are found exerting at times considerable influence on political developments, until the renaissance of Saivism (especially in the form of Vira^aivism) in the south and the expansion of Islam in the north shatter the flourishing Jaina communities. The fourteenth century is the great divide. From then on Jainism is on the defensive, and its adherents having lost access to the sources of power are relegated to the role of a scattered minority, no longer proselytizing, and increasingly identified with certain narrow social groups. This modern period is therefore, by com- parison with the past, an age of decadence. The h-avakacdras are not the only, nor indeed the best, source of information on the lay life. Clearly their authors, who for the mediaeval period seem all, except ASadhara, to have been monks, have not portrayed society as it existed but rather as they would have wished to see it, so that this survey may be said to be con- cerned in a sense with theory rather than with reality. Like the Hindu dharma-iastras these treatises present a one-sided view but in them it is the idealized figure of the muni and not of the brahmin that occupies the centre of the stage. The rich and varied katha literature, however artificial and shackled by convention it may be, can add much to complete the picture whilst the epigraphical evidence remains still largely unexploited. Though less voluminous than the treatises devoted to the monas- tic life the sravakacar as are still sufficiently numerous to make it difficult to cover their contents within a reasonable compass, even allowing for the fact that many have never been published or, even if printed, are not accessible in Europe. It was therefore decided to exclude all works in Tamil and Kanarese and to limit the scope of this survey to writings in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The very exten- sive literature in Hindi and Gujarati belongs in any event to the modern period. If therefore the relatively small number of texts INTRODUCTION xiii surveyed is taken into consideration the generalizations may seem at times too categoric and any conclusions reached are bound to rest on incomplete evidence. This survey then is an attempt to describe the contents of the mediaeval sravakacaras including also the three asvasas from Somadeva’s Yasastilaka which are often collectively referred to as an upasakadhyayana and the three parvans from Jinasena’s Adi - purana which describe the kriyas or ceremonies marking the stages of progress in the lay and monastic life: in view of the esteem which they enjoy in the Digambara tradition it would have been impossible to omit these. On the other hand, with works such as the Dharma-bindu , Caritra-sara , Yoga-sastra, and Dharmamrta which treat of both the lay and the monastic life, only the sections relevant to the former have been taken into consideration. Nor are all the actual contents of the sravakacaras suitable for inclusion. The epitomes of the tattvas or padarthas , the basic dogmas of Jainism, prefixed by certain writers to their treatises offer, for example, no material that is not easily available elsewhere. The refutations of doctrines regarded as forms of mithydtva or false belief, though of intrinsic interest, are not germane to this survey: in general they are directed against the nastikas (with whom the Jainas are at great pains not to be confused), the Buddhists, or the Saivas, no attention being devoted to the Vaisnavas. Other excur- sions from the main theme are the heterogeneous items of informa- tion on topics as remote, for example, as stena-sastra which are to be found in the Svetambara commentaries and the technical instructions for the building of temples and fashioning of images. It might be desirable in a study of this kind to concentrate on a fixed point in time and it may be objected that the period covered by the survey — eight centuries — is too long to permit of any cohesion of treatment. In fact three-quarters of the works con- sidered belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. If any one book is to be taken as a standard it must be the YogaAastra , the general plan of which has moreover been followed in deciding the sequence of the contents, which, following the Jaina pattern, have been arranged by numerical categories. No other religion has been so obsessed by the hallucination of numbers and any description which failed to take account of this unprepossessing presentation would not be faithful. For some aspects of Jaina practice in which there have been considerable innovations such as the yatra, where INTRODUCTION adv the mediaeval texts do not offer sufficient material, works sub- sequent to a.d. 1300 have been drawn on for supplementary in- formation. Before discussing certain points which arise from the survey it would perhaps be desirable to note how far the subject of sravakd- cara has attracted attention in the past. Weber touched on it in the course of his researches into the Jaina canon but the earliest attempt to produce an edition of a relevant text seems to have been t made by Windisch when he published the first iour prakasas of the Yoga-sastra; in the absence of the commentary his translation was naturally, at that stage, often speculative and sometimes wide of the mark. On the other hand, Hoernle’s edition of the Updsaka- daiah included Abhayadeva’s commentary and his renderings of text and commentary are still in the main valid. Jacobi’s edition of the Tattvartha-mtra 1 made that fundamental work available with translation, but the section of it devoted to srdvakacara — the seventh adhydya — is a small and relatively unimportant part of the whole. Ernst Leumann’s researches into the Avaiyaka literature were of relevance to the lay doctrine by the light which they threw on the Svetambara and Digambara liturgy. The two best general works on Jainism — Der Jainismus by H. von Glasenapp and Die'Lehre der Jainas by W. Schubring — are not concerned to a very great extent with the srdvakacara . The former dealt mainly with the contemporary scene; the latter covered the subject as far as it figures in the canonical literature with his usual masterly con- cision and impeccable scholarship. There was in Italy during the early years of this century a very great interest in Jaina and Middle Indian studies as the names of Tessitori, Pulle, Pavolini, Ballini, Belloni-Filippi, and Suali bear witness. Suali in particular, in his edition of the Dharma-bindu in the Giornale Asiatico, unhappily never continued beyond the fourth adhydya, offered one of the most successful translations of a Sanskrit text into a European language, a version in which elegance and poetical felicity of style are matched by the author’s mastery of his subject. With the text and translation are included an intro- duction and a commentary, based on that of Municandra, which together give a good idea of the classical $vetambara Srdvakacara doctrine. Belloni-Filippi, in the same periodical, embarked on an 1 H. Jacobi, ‘Eine Jaina Dogmatic, ZDMG lx (1906), pp. 387-335 and 5 13-55. INTRODUCTION xv edition and translation of the Yoga-sastra which did not progress very far. In India in the twenties and thirties a group of Digambara pro- pagandists headed by Jagmandarlal Jaini and Champat Ray Jain produced in the Bibliotheca Jainica editions of works such as the Ratna-karanda and the Purusartha-siddhy-upaya, coupling them with English translations of no high merit in which a modern in- terpretation often disfigures the sense of the original. The same objection applies to the pamphlets on the lay doctrine compiled by Champat Ray Jain and others. They belong rather with the voluminous ethical literature which issues so freely from the presses in Hindi and Gujarati. Whilst in Svetambara circles no great attention seems to have been devoted to the study of the older sravakacara treatises there is a small body of work done by scholars, all Digambaras, that cannot be ignored. In particular from Nathuram PremI, Jugalkisor Mukhtar, and Hlralal Jain have come a number of contributions of significance written in Hindi and for the most part scattered over periodicals or incorporated in introductions to texts. Premf s essays, mainly drawn from the Jaina Hitaishi , have been reprinted in book form under the title Jaina sdhitya aur itihas and provide a mine of information, always cautious, always accurate, on a multi- plicity of Jaina and mainly Digambara themes including that of the layman’s duties. Hlralal Jain has prefaced his edition of the Vasunandi-sravakacara by an introduction which is, in effect, the first monograph on sravakacara in any language though limited to Digambara sources. Jugalkisor Mukhtar, who in an early pub- lication, Grantha pariksa, had discussed the spurious sravakacaras current in Digambara milieux, has more recently assembled in the introduction to the Puratana Jaina- vakya-suci much information on the chronology of Jaina writers. A. N. Upadhye, who writes in English, has lately dealt with the subject in the admirable intro- duction to his edition of the Dvadaianupreksa. Another very recent work is the translation of the Sarvartha-siddhi commentary by S. A. Jain, who has made a remarkably successful rendering of a difficult subject. A sociological study, the Jaina Community of V. Sangave, contains much of interest on the sravakacara ; its value would have been higher had the author gone to the original sources instead of relying on such unsure guides as Mrs. Stevenson. Though Hindi or Gujarati or, in a few cases, English translations 0 787 b xvi INTRODUCTION exist for a number of the works which form the subject of this sur- vey, only three of these are of sufficient quality to be utilizable without reference to the text. These are Suali’s version of the Dharma-bindu, S. A. Jain’s version of the Sarvartha-siddhi, and the admirable Yaiastilaka and Indian Culture of K. K. Handiqui; this last might well serve as a prototype for similar studies of other classical works. It is not a translation, but all passages of significance in the original are so accurately rendered and clearly commented that recourse to the text can be avoided. The traditional distinction between the code of behaviour for the householder, the hdvakdcara, and that for the monk, the yaty- acara , is a fundamental one. Initially the lay estate was admitted by the Jina only in deference to human frailty and was regarded in theory as a stage of preparation for the ascetic life. In the early period of Jainism the sravakacara was therefore of minimal im- portance, and as it has grown progressively in significance various expedients have had to be adopted to make up for the silence of the canonical texts. The corpus of the lay doctrine is in fact a creation of the mediaeval period. The Upasaka-dasah supplied the frame- work of the vratas , each with its five typical aticaras or infractions, and the pratimas . Though the notion that these aticaras were intended only as examples 1 is familiar to the older iSvetambara deary as, they soon became, in practice, the basis of a complete moral code. The Avalyaka literature gave the details of the necessary duties which are obligatory on the layman as well as on the monk, and, doubtless because some practices belong at the same time to several categories — the samayika , which is both vrata, pratima , and avasyaka, is a case in point — and because in some of them the ascetic is assimilated temporarily to the position of a monk, the transference to the lay life of rules originally intended for the community of monks was facilitated. This process of adaptation was developed on a wide scale and contributed notably to the building up of the vast edifice of the temple ritual. An expanding tradition of sacred legends such as those which under the appella- tion of purdnas have been fashioned by the Digambaras into the shape of a scripture helped to lend authority to innovations in practice as when the name of Krsna Yasudeva is invoked as the 1 See, for example, Abhayadeva’s remarks on UD i, 55. INTRODUCTION XVII originator of the dvadasavarta-vandanaka. 1 A similar purpose was achieved by the conferment of a quasi-canonical authority on famous purvacaryas\ an example is the use of the phrase iti Haribhadra-suri-ma tam . 2 The Digambaras, who by not admitting the authenticity of the extant canon have to some extent rejected the servitudes of tradition, have not hesitated before a conscious rationalization of the texts : this is true notably of the Tattvartha- sutra and the Ratna-karanda. Local usage or customary law, the desacara , though accorded no mandatory force, has always been admitted as a guide wherever there is no conflict with Jaina doctrine and more particularly in the modern period has been increasingly incorporated in the sravakacara. An extreme instance of this pro- cess would be the sanctification of the arka-vivaha in the seven- teenth-century Traivarnikacdra. At all times the building up of the sravakacara has been assisted by the polyvalence of certain terms and by the habit, widespread among the commentators, of arbitrarily treating words or phrases as upalaksanas — symbols or examples of wider categories : and again and again the word adi is inserted by the commentators in places where the text offers no justification for it. The methods used in constructing the sravaka- cara have their analogies elsewhere: it is with rather similar exiguous resources that the Christian and Moslem exegetes raised their elaborate edifices of morality. In the presentation of the iravakacara the original pattern, Digambara as well as iSvetambara, seems to have been a descrip- tion of samyaktva and the twelve vratas followed by a sketch of the ritual and incorporating miscellaneous injunctions that cannot be brought under the head of any particular vow. Hemacandra, drawing on ideas to be found in the Dharma-bindu , introduced the concept of the dina-carya as a device for describing the avasyakas and prefaced his discussion of the vratas by a delineation of the thirty-five sravaka-gunas. Both of these devices served as models for later srdvakdcdras : treatises like the Sraddha-dina-krtya and Sraddha-vidhi are based on a description of the day’s ritual duties into which are inserted, under no very orderly arrangement, the moral precepts of the creed; whilst the more popular, discursive pattern of the sravaka-gunas , embodying the qualities of the ideal layman, is adopted in the Sraddha-guna-vivarana. The Digam- baras have often chosen a framework in which the essential 1 Y& iii. 130 (p. 679). * PS v. 277. xviii INTRODUCTION divisions are furnished by th & pratimas, the vratas being treated under the second pratima\ or, less commonly, they have pre- ferred a schema based on the categories of paksa (favourable inclination to the doctrine), nisfha (performance of the pratimas), and sadhana (completion of one’s life by ritual suicide). In general they have given only a perfunctory treatment of the avaiyakas , esteeming them to belong rather to the province of yaty-acara. Perhaps because they disclaim the continuity of tradition the Digambaras seem to have felt more keenly than the &vetambaras the need to concretize and systematize the lay doctrine, and, in attempting a more logical presentation of the creed, they have effaced more than one discrepancy. It is basically this fact which has made it impossible to accept the same ascription for the Sravaka-praj napti and for the Tattvartha- sutra, which from the angle of fravakacara is a wholly Digambara text. Ordinarily in any conflict of usage between the two sects, except in the practice of ascetic nudity, the Digambaras appear in the position of innovators, and it is precisely because they have largely jettisoned the dead- wood of an earlier age that their testimony is of greater value for the conditions of the mediaeval period. Fidelity to tradition has meant that while much valuable material lies embedded in the Svetambara commentaries the precise dating of any passage is very difficult since whole sections are handed on from one writer to another until, when all relevance to the contemporary scene has been lost, they are tacitly dropped, to risk being resurrected by some learned reformer like Ya&mjaya in a later age. From the religious angle a more serious handicap has been the over- subtilization of the exegesis of the vratas. Syadvada logic has been pressed into service to determine the exact nature of each bhanga and aticara but the niceties of calculation have weakened the com- pulsive force of moral commandments and ethical principles. For this reason probably, the Svetambaras in their later sravakacaras abandoned the framework of the vratas. Jaina writers have shown a quite remarkable aptitude for the subtle handling of words evidenced by such achievements as the Jaina version of the Megha-duta. The polyvalence of certain expres- sions even within the limits of the same text is often disconcerting : gutta in particular is greatly overworked and so are kriya and karman. Indeed one is led to wonder whether the double meanings given to INTRODUCTION XIX many words and their formal identity with Hindu terms may not be voluntary. Examples of such coincidences (with the Jaina meanings noted in parenthesis) are : siva (moksa), linga (the monk’s symbols such as the rajo-harana), guna-traya (the ratna-traya), pasupati (the Jina)> maha-deva (the Jina) whilst on the other hand the word Digambara itself can be an epithet of Siva. It may be that such resemblances were intended to render Jaina doctrines attractive to Saivas or that a Saiva persecution made it desirable to give to certain Jaina texts an innocuous aspect. Certainly the Jainas’s concept of asatya would make it easy for them to adopt an attitude similar to that of those Shiite sectarians who in the early days of Islam maintained an outward conformity by concealing their real beliefs under forms of words. Two aspects of Jainism have been overstressed in most descrip- tions: the negative formulation of the creed and the absence of change in its history. In the last resort every moral code rests, like the Christian decalogue, on prohibitions; but even in Jainism each anuvrata has its positive as well as its negative aspect, ahimsa can be reformulated as daya , active compassion for all living beings. If Jainism has never challenged the constituted order of society, it has essayed to permeate it with the spirit of compassion but because human beings are actuated by self-interest it has pointed out to them the lower motives for doing good. Merit may be re- warded at any of three levels : by fortune in this life, by an auspi- cious reincarnation in the deva-loka or in a bhoga-bhumi , and by release from the cycle of existence. In popular Jainism where the second aim rates as high as the third it becomes as important to build up a good karma (which is not in harmony with the creed) as to destroy all karma. The changelessness of Jainismisno more than a myth. Admittedly there have been no spectacular changes in basic assumptions such as there were, for example, in Mahayana Buddhism. At most there have been variations in emphasis. Had Jainism, as at one time must have seemed possible, become a majority religion in southern India something akin to a Digambara Mahayana might, with con- tinuing favourable circumstances, have emerged. But all that can' be detected today are the traces of aborted developments : thus in the Ratna-karanda the devadhideva is apostrophized as the annihila- tor of Kamadeva who seems from the context cast for the role of the Buddhist Mara. But whilst the dogma remains strikingly firm XX INTRODUCTION the ritual changes and assumes an astonishing complexity and richness of symbolism. From implying merely the feeding of religious mendicants the duty of dana comes to mean the provision of rich ecclesiastical endowments and, amongst the $vetambaras, the monk is no longer, except in theory, a homeless wanderer. It is recognized that he needs comfort, shelter, warmth to enable him to concentrate on study. Th cyatra ceases to be a mere promenading of the idols through the city on a festival day and comes to denote an organized convoy going on pilgrimage to distant sacred places. And all the time more and more stress is being laid on the indi- vidual's duties to the community. The Jaina religion is a tirtha , a way of progress through life, and whilst th eyaty-acara teaches the individual how to organize his own salvation the aim of sravakacara is to ensure that an environment is created in which the ascetic may be able to travel the road of moksa. It must therefore be concerned with the community as well as with the individual and if the right people — the bhavyas — are to be attracted to the right tirtha missionary efforts are necessary. Jainism welcomes the like-minded even if they do not outwardly profess its beliefs, and relies very much on the force of examples: a whole chapter of the Dharma-bindu is devoted to the need to cultivate those qualities in a person which are susceptible of en- couraging respect for his beliefs in the community. However, the essential change in Jainism during the mediaeval period is its transformation from a philosophy, a darsana , to a religion. All the new trends are in one sense or another movements towards a fuller way of life. One of the most important of these is that of which Jinasena is the chosen exponent. The kriyas or ceremonies listed in the Adi-purana are the principal expression of a religion adapted to a ksatriya concept of society. Most striking is the prominence given to the upanayana or initiation rite which, like the monastic diksa , is described as a second birth. This and other imitations of Hinduism are decked with a certain external Jaina symbolism. However contrary the sanctification of marriage may be to the dictates of reason a religion that disdains such aid can with difficulty achieve a hold on the masses. An elaborate wedding cere- monial, again patterned on Hindu models, is therefore presented m the Adi-purana. Apart from this there is barely a mention of marriage in the sravakacaras except for a recapitulation of the eight forms recorded in the Hindu dharma-sastras. Some of these, such INTRODUCTION xxi as the gandharva-vimha , are, as A^adhara notes, directly contrary to the tenets of Jainism. If this metamorphosis from a darsana to a religion is slowly taking place the rites continue to be no more than an elaborate apparatus of symbolism designed to enable the worshipper the better to concentrate on pious meditation. Jinasena admits the utility of a Jaina brahmin or ksullaka for the performance of certain kriyas but no professional ministrants are needed to officiate in the temple. When even the garbha-grha , the inner sanctuary, conceals no sacred mystery each man has the right to remain his own priest. That role cannot belong to the monk who by his very vocation is restricted to the position of a passive witness. Certain avaiyakas — pratikramana, alocana , pratyakhyana — are best performed before him but even there his presence is not essential for like the Jina, now for ever absent in the euphory of his perfection but portrayed in the image, the monk too may be symbolically represented (by the sthapanacarya). His one duty (if this term maybe used) towards the layman is to instruct him in the sacred doctrine on which he remains the unchallengeable authority. The polarity of householder and ascetic is indeed one of the most characteristic features of the Jaina structure. The layman has the obligation to cherish his family, the monk must sever all ties with them. The layman is enjoined to perform dravya-puja: not only does he offer fruits and flowers and sweetmeats but he cleans the image, and if he has skill in music and dancing (accomplishments which when put to any other use are regarded as undesirable and indeed harmful) he should display it ; the monk on the other hand may offer only mental praise. Even if the tradition provides that as little water as possible should be used, the householder must still bathe frequently, but in theory at least the ascetic should never bathe. The monk — the Digambara monk — should be naked but the layman has to be decently clad, and for all religious ceremonies must wear at least two pieces of cloth. This antithesis of the partial and the complete vows disappears to some extent in some of the dvasyaka rites where the layman is assimilated to the ascetic but in general it may be said that where the monk is excessive, since his life is the negation of compromise, moderation must be the key- note of existence for the householder whose life is rooted in com- promise. In his every action the householder is beset by the unintentional xxii INTRODUCTION evil which he provokes in his daily work. As a desa-virata , one whose gaze is only half averted from the sensual world, he must always be on his guard, apprehensive of sin. As the sravaka-gunas portray him he works hard, conforms to conventions, obeys con- stituted authority, leads a frugal and unostentatious life, and carefully calculates the consequences of every step he takes. This conception of the lay life which follows logically from the dogmas of the creed is assuredly the main factor responsible for the close association, so often noted, of Jainism with the middle-class trading community. Such a conclusion is very far from the view 1 which, falsifying the picture of its origins, regards it as tailor-made for the bourgeoisie. Agriculture, India’s basic occupation, has never been reckoned among the forbidden callings though various restrictions on its practice have been introduced on the basis of the ahimsa - vrata and commerce, medicine, astrology, and administration have all been recognized as licit. Some Digambaras like Jinasena and Camundaraya have even legislated for a ksatriya society. Not all Jainas are merchants but many merchants happen to be Jainas because the qualities highlighted in the ideal layman are also those which generally contribute to success in business, and so a creed of complete otherworldliness has offered a background for the suc- cessfully worldly . 2 3 The differences which separate Jainism from Hinduism and Buddhism, the other two religions which India has given to the world, are largely differences of emphasis for all have built from common material. Ahimsa. , for example, is preponderant in, but not peculiar to, Jainism: it is extolled even in such Hindu texts as the Manu-smrti (which Hemacandras stigmatizes as a himsa-sdstra) but it is the central position and pervading character of ahimsa that separate the Jaina ethic sharply from Hinduism as well as from Islam and Christianity. Resemblances to Christianity are of course no more than the fortuitous result of a common ascetic ideology, but the question may be raised whether Moslem influence may not at certain points during the mediaeval period have touched Jaina practice. A clear answer is hard to give but some developments which cannot be traced back to an early date have possibly been stimulated, if not 1 Such as that in effect taken by W. Ruben in Einfiihrung in die Indienkunde. 3 A European parallel might be found in the history of the Quakers. 3 YS ii. 35. INTRODUCTION xxiii originated, by Islamic contacts. The wide extension of the category of the afatanas — the activities that are unfitting or indecent in a temple — if, on the one hand, it is evidence of an epoch when reli- gious observance had grown weak, also reveals a notion of the sanctity of the physical edifice which is more evocative of Moslem barakah than of any traditional Jaina attitude. Ratnasekhara’s picture 1 of a pilgrim caravan making its way to Satrunjaya bears less resemblance to any Hindu pilgrimage than to the hajj> the example of which may have contributed to the spectacular develop- ment of what seems once to have been a mere variant of the yatra or religious festival. Similarly, when Medhavin* proclaims that the essence of Jainism lies in the conviction that ‘there is no deva but the Jina’ it is difficult to believe that he was unacquainted with the Moslem profession of faith. But such likenesses are few and un- important, and the only evidence for them comes from very late writers. The interaction of Buddhism and Jainism dates from the very beginning of their history and lies largely outside the scope of this work though throughout the mediaeval period the two communities must have been in constant contact as the recurring references to Buddhism as the principal form of mithyatva attest. It, however, might be noted that some Sanskrit Buddhist texts show curious similarities of terminology with the Jaina sravakacaras in the dis- cussion of the layman’s duties. Hindu influences are at work throughout Jaina history though the Digambaras are significantly affected by them at an earlier date than the $vetambaras. The main line of hinduization tuns through Jinasena, Camundaraya, and ASadhara. On the basis of the Hindu samskaras an ambitious fabric of Jaina kriyas was set up and at the same time mantras intruded more and more into the con- tinually enriched ritual, yogic techniques were adopted and, as the quotations from such works as the Manu-smrti , the Vatsyayana - kama-sutra , and the Ayurvedic texts show, Hindu sastras gained wider currency. In the case of the ^vetambara community the opening up of new and wider horizons was largely the work of Hemacandra. Earlier Jainism had relegated to the desacara all aspects of human activity not specifically covered by the traditional literature and had tacitly admitted non-Jaina practices provided that they 1 iSraddha-vidhi, p. 1236. 2 Jar (M) iv. 29. INTRODUCTION XXIV were not in blatant conflict with its principles. Even the Kali-kala - sarvajna himself is content to say that where the religious law is silent the desacara should prevail . 1 It is in fact only with the close of the mediaeval period that come the great inroads of Hinduism which completely reverse this attitude, and that elements contrary to the spirit of the religion are incorporated into the practice . 2 Above all, the characteristic of the latest phase of Jainism is that what was once regarded as optional comes to be expounded as obligatory. It has already been noted that the early Jainism showed no con- cern with the rites de passage. Though an abundant literature is devoted to ritual suicide it is difficult to detect any reference to funeral customs or again to sutaka before the fifteenth century. Marriage remained a question of regional usage at least until Jina- sena prescribed a ceremony based on the Hindu fire ritual and the earliest Svetambara work to deal in detail with this subject seems to have been the Acara-dinakara. But the immemorial usage of Hindu neighbours must at all times have coloured the individual Jaina’s life. Though only very late texts enjoin the use of cow’s urine for purification, a chance statement, repeated by the com- mentators in explaining the brahma-vrata> attests the importance attached to it in ordinary custom. The general validity of the menstruation taboo is nowhere alluded to, but is attested by Devendra’s casual reference to the story of a woman who brought on herself an evil reincarnation by making the Jina-puja whilst in a state of ritual impurity. Against the formal denial of attachment to loved ones the family reasserts its rights and the begetting of a son, recommended already by Aiadhara, becomes a duty in the late texts. Early Jainism knows no rules for eating, for bathing, for excretion save those which are designed to avoid destruction of life, and none at all for copulation, which theoretically should not take place, but the late srdvakdcdras take over from Hinduism minute instructions on these points. Pujd, which initially has little importance because it does not affect the survival of the Jaina religion as such, comes to be given a greater significance than dana, which is essential since without it the monks could not live. Of all late accretions from Hinduism, however, the most striking is the introduction of sraddha ox pitr-tarpana, condemned in the classical sravakdcdras as a regrettable form of mithydtva. 1 Y& ii. 49. 2 See Jugalkisor Mukhtar, Grantha Parlksa, pp. 99-118. INTRODUCTION XXV Parallel with the phenomenon of hinduization goes that of sanskrltization. Maharastrl Prakrit, though long a dead language, was, in the mediaeval period, largely used by the Svetambaras with whom it had replaced another dead language, the Ardhamagadhi of the canon, both for ornate kavyas in prose and verse and for scientific exposition. It is possible that its use was favoured by certain gacchas whilst others preferred Sanskrit but in any event, as treatises like Yasodeva’s Pa ncaiaka- curni show, Haribhadra’s inno- vation in writing commentaries on the sacred texts in Sanskrit was very far from dealing it a fatal blow. Hemacandra, however, though he wrote a grammar of Prakrit and himself composed a kavya to illustrate its rules, virtually put an end to its use by spreading Sanskrit culture in Jaina circles, and within a century of his death it had ceased to be adopted except for the composition of skeleton verses on which, as in the case of the Sraddha-vidhi of RatnaSe- khara, a prose treatise could be draped. With the Digambaras the linguistic situation is less clear. Sanskrit had come into general use at an earlier date, but from time to time works were still written in Prakrit, perhaps again in particular milieux. As with the £vet- ambaras, however, the end of the mediaeval period seems to mark the final limit of its utilization. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT TEXTS USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS SURVEY 1 Amitagati: Sravakacara (Anantakirti Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 2). Bombay, 1922. £r (A) ‘Subhasita-ratna-sandoha’, edited with translation by R. Schmidt in ZDMG lix. 61. Amrtacandra : Purusartha-siddhy-upaya (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala). Bombay, 1905. PASU Agadhara : Sagara-dharmamrta (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 2). Bombay, 1917. SDhA Anagara-dharmamrta (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 14). Bombay, 1919. AvaSyaka-sutra with commentary of Haribhadra (Agamo- daya Samiti Siddhanta Samgraha, no. 1). Bombay, 1916. Av (H) Avasyaka-sutra with CurnI (R.sabhadeva Ke^arlmala Jaina Svetambara Samstha). Ratlam, 1929. Av Cu. Camundaraya: Caritra-sara (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 9). Bombay, 1917. CS Caritrasundara : Acaropade^a. Ahmedabad, 1925. AU Devagupta : Nava-pada-prakarana with Laghu-vrtti (Deva- candra Lalabha! Jaina Pustakoddhara, no. 68). Bombay, 1926. NPP Devasena : Bhava-samgraha in Bhava-samgrahadi (Mani- kacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 20). Bombay, 1922. BhS (D) Devendra: Sraddha-dina-krtya (Rsabhadeva Kesarlmala Jaina Svetambara Samstha). Ratlam, 1937. SrDK Bhasya-traya (Atmananda Grantha-ratna-mala, no. IS). Bhavnagar, 1912. Caitya-vandana-bhasya with Sanghacara-vrtti. Surat, 1938. * CVBh Gunabhu^ana: Sravakacara. Surat, 1925* Haribhadra: Sravaka-dharma-pancagaka with CurnI of YaSodeva (Devacandra Lalabhai Jaina Pustakod- dhara, no. 102). 1952. P (Y) PancaSaka with commentary of Abhayadeva (Rsabhadeva Kesarlmala Jaina Svetambara Sainstha). Ratlam, 1941. 1 The symbols on the right indicate the abbreviations used in the footnotes. xxviii BIBLIOGRAPHY Haribhadra: Abhayadeva’s commentary on the gravaka- dharma-pancaSaka is quoted as and the text of the individual Pancasakas as : gravaka-dharma-pahcasaka Vandana-vidhana-pancaSaka Puja-vidhana-pancasaka Yatra-vidhi-pancaSaka gramanopasaka-pratima-pancasaka Dharma-bindu, edited with translation by L. Suali in GSAIxxi (1908), 324-90. . Dharma-bindu with commentary of Municandra (Agamodaya Samiti). Bombay, 1924. Lalita-vistara commentary on Caitya-vandana- sutra (D evacandra Lalabhal J ainaPustako ddhara, no . 29) . Bombay, 1915. Hemacandra: Yoga-Sastra (Bibliotheca Indica, no. 172). Calcutta, 1907-21. Jinadatta: Caitya-vandana-kulaka (Jinadatta Suri Praclna Pustakoddhara, no. 11). Bombay, 1920. Jinaman^ana : graddha-guna-vivarana (Atmananda Gran- tha-ratna-mala, no. 29). Bhavnagar, 1914. Jinasena: Adi-purana (Jnanapitha Murtidevi Jaina Granthamala, no. 9). Benares, 1951. Karttikeya: Dvada^anupreksa, ed. by A. N. Upadhye. Bom- bay, i960. Kundakunda: Caritra-prabhrta in §at-prabhrtadi- samgraha (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 17). Bombay, 1920. Manavijaya: Dharma-sarpgraha with commentary of YaSovijaya (Devacandra Lalabhal Jaina Pustakoddhara, no. 26), Bombay, 1915. Medhavin : gravakacara Dharma-samgraha-sravakacara. Benares, 1910. Nemicandra: Pravacana-saro ddhara (Devacandra Lalabhal Jaina Pustakoddhara, nos. 58, 64). Bombay, 1922-6. Padmanandin: Dharma-rasayana in Siddhanta-saradi- samgraha (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Grantha- mala, no. 21). Bombay, 1922. gravakacara. Belgaum, 1911. Puja-prakarana in Tattvartha-sutra (Bibliotheca Indica, no. 1 59). Calcutta, 1903-5. Rajamalla: Lati-sarphita (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 26). Bombay, 1927. Ratna-sara or Rayana-sara ascribed to Kundakunda, ed. Jnanasagara. Calcutta, 1934. Ratnaiekhara : graddha-vidhi (Atmananda Grantha-ratna- mala, no. 48). Bhavnagar, 1917. Sakalaklrti: Prasnottara-sravakacara. Surat, 1927. P (A) P (grDh) P (Vandana) P Puja) P (Yatra) P (grUP) DhB LY Yg grGuV MP KA gr (M) PS BIBLIOGRAPHY XXIX Samantabhadra: Ratna-karanda-sravakacara with com- mentary of Prabhacandra (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 24). Bombay, 1926. RK <§anti Suri: Dharma-ratna-pralcarana (Atmananda Gran- tha-ratna-mala, no. 30). Bhavnagar, 1913. DhRP Sivakoti : Ratna-malainSiddhanta-saradi-samgraha(Mani- kacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 21). Bom- bay, 1922. Somadeva: YaSastilalca (Kavya-mala, no'. 70). Bombay, 1 901-3. References to this work are quoted from : K. K. Handiqui : YaSastilaka and Indian Culture ( Jlvaraja Jaina Granthamala, no. 2). Sholapur, 1949. Handiqui Somasena: Traivarnilcacara, ed. by Pannalal Son!. Bombay, 1925. TrA Sraddha-pratilcramana-sutra with V andaru-vrtti of Deven- dra (Devacandra Lalabhai Jaina Pustalcoddhara, no. 8). Bombay, 1912. Sraddha-pratilcramana-sutra with commentary of Ratna- Selchara (Devacandra Lalabhai Jaina Pustalcoddhara, no. 48). Bombay, 1919. &ravaka-dharma-dohaka(or Savaya-dhamma-doha), ed. by Hiralal Jain (Karanja Jain Series, no. 2). Karanja, 1932. Doha Umasvamin: Tattvartha-sutra with Sarvartha-siddhi of Pujyapada (Jnanapitha MurtidevI Jaina Granthamala, no. 13). Benares, 1955. T (P) Reality : an English translation of the Sarvartha-siddhi, by S. A. Jain (Vira^asana Sangha). Calcutta, i960. Tattvartha-sutra with commentary of Siddhasena (Devacandra Lalabhai Jaina Pustalcoddhara, no. 76). Bombay, 1930. T (S) Umasvati: Sravaka-prajnapti. Bombay, 1905. SrPr Vamadeva : Bhava-samgraha in Bhava-samgrahadi (Mani- kacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, no. 20). Bombay, 1922. BhS (V) Vardhamana: Acara-dinakara (Kharatara Gaccha Gran- thamala, no. 2). Bombay, 1923. ADK Vasunandin: Sravakacara, ed. by Hiralal Jain (Jnanapitha MurtidevI Jaina Granthamala, Prakrit series, no. 3). Sr (V) Upasalca-daSah with commentary of Abhayadeva, ed. with trans. by Hoernle, (Bibliotheca Indica, no. 105). Calcutta, 1890. UD B. OTHER WORKS AND ARTICLES F. Belloni-Filippi : Yoga-fastra in GSAI xxi (1908). G. K. Bruhn: Sllahlcas Cauppannamahapurisacariya (Alt- und Neu- Indische Studien, no. 8). Hamburg, 1954. XXX BIBLIOGRAPHY G. BUhler: t)ber das Leben des Jaina-Monches Hemacandra, Vienna, 1889. M. B. Desai: Jaina sahitya no itihas. Bombay, 1927. H, von Glasenapp: Der Jainismus. Berlin, 1925. H. Jacobi: Samarazcca Kaha (Bibliotheca Indica, no. 169). Calcutta, x 908-26. Jagdish Chandra Jain: Life in Ancient India. Bombay, 1947. Jagmandarlal Jaini: Outlines of Jainism. Cambridge, 1940. Jinavijaya Muni : Haribhadra Suri ka samaya-nirnaya in Jaina Sahitya Sainiodhaha , Part I. P. V. Kane: History of DharmaSastra. Bombay, 1930-58. K. von Kamptz: Uber die vom Sterbefasten handelnden alteren Painna des Jaina-Kanons. Hamburg, 1929. W. Kirfel: Symbolik des Hinduismus und des Jinismus. Stuttgart, 1959. and L. Hilgenberg: Gbersetzung von Astarxgahrdaya. Leiden, 1941. J. Klatt: Specimen of a Literary-Bibliographical Jaina-Onomasticon. Leipzig, 1892. J, F. Kohl: Pflanzen mit gemeinsamen Korper in Zeitschrift fiir Ethno- logie , Bd. 78/1 (1953)- Einige Bemerkungen zur Zahlensymbolik und zum Animismus im botanischen System des Jaina-Kanon in Studia Indologica, pp. 125-35. Bonn, 1955. E. Leumann: t)bersicht iiber die AvaSyaka-Literatur. Hamburg, 1934. J. J. Meyer: Trilogie altindischer Machte und Feste der Vegetation. Zurich, 1937. Jugalkisor Mukhtar: Grantha-parlksa. Bombay, 1917. Puratana Jaina vakyasuci (Vira Seva Mandira Granthamala, no. 5). Sarsawa, 1950. Nathuram Premi: Jaina sahitya aur itihas. Bombay, 1942. J. Przyluski: La Grande D6esse. Paris, 1950. V. A. Sangave: Jaina Community. Bombay, 1959. W. Schubring: Die Lehre der Jainas. Berlin, 1935. Kundakunda echt und unecht in ZD MG cvii (1957), pp. 554—74. Das Mahanisiha-Sutta (Abh. d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin, 1918). M. N. Srinivas: Marriage and Family in Mysore. Bombay, 1942, H. D. Velankar: Jina-ratna-koSa. Poona, 1944. E. Windisch: Yoga-sastra in ZDMG xxviii (1874), pp. 185-262. M. Winternitz: History of Indian Literature, vol. ii. Buddhist and Jaina Literature. Calcutta, 1933. THE AUTHORS— SVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 1 Umasvati Sravaka-praj napti 5 th century (?) Haribhadra Virahanka Pancagaka ob. 529 (?) Haribhadra Yakim-putra Dharma-bindu c. 750 ,, Lalita-vistara » „ AvaSyaka commentary Siddhasena Ganin Tattvartha-sutra commen- 9th century (?) tary Dhanapala Sravaka-vidhi c. 970 Devagupta Nava-pada-prakarana with 1016 commentary Santi Suri Dharma-ratna-prakarana ob. 1040 Abhayadeva Upasaka-daSah commen- to6i tary )} PancaSaka commentary 1068 Nemicandra Pravacana-saroddhara nth century (?) Municandra Dharma-bindu commentary ob. 1132 (?) YaSodeva Panca^aka commentary 1116 Hemacandra Yoga-Sastra 1089-1173 Siddhasena Suri Pravacana-saroddhara 1185 commentary Devendra Sraddha-dina-krtya ob. 1270 Vandaru-vrtti commentary T>1- — — *) Dharmaghosa a Sanghacara c. 1270 Jinadatta Caitya-vandana-kulaka c . 1300 Puja-prakarana 14th century (?) Jinadatta Viveka-vilasa 14th century (? ) Vardhamana Acara-dinakara 1411 Caritrasundara Acaropade^a 1430 Jinamandana Sraddha-guna-Sreni- 1441 samgraha RatnaSekhara Sraddha-vidhi 1450 YaSovijaya Dharma-samgraha com- 1624-88 mentary Umasvati Amongst the works usually ascribed to Umasvati the Vacaka at least three have a bearing on the sravakacara : the Tattvartha-sutra, 1 The chronology here, and still more in the Digambara sampradaya, is often uncertain, and all that has been attempted in this list is to establish rather hesitantly the sequence of the authors. 0 737 B 2 THE AUTHORS — SVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA the &rftvaka~praj hapti, and the Ptijd-prakarana. The last-named is patently spurious and need not concern us here: it will be dis- cussed in its proper place in the chronological sequence; and there is equally convincing internal evidence that the 3 rav aka-praj iiapti cannot be by the same hand as the famous Siltra. Consider first the seventh adhyaya of the Tattvartha-sutra, the only section devoted — and that only in part — to the lay life. Here the Svetambara and Digambara recensions do not differ except in the numbering, as siitras 4 to 8 , which are missing from the iSvetambara version, have in fact been transferred to the bhasya . 1 Yet the text as accepted by the Svetambaras shows some curious features. First, in siitra 18 it is specified that the layman, before he can take the vratas, must be devoid of the three salyas ; elsewhere this condition is only laid down in the Digambara sravakacaras , in- deed the term does not seem to find a mention in Svetambara texts. Secondly, the sequence of the vratas in sutra 21 does not follow the model of the Upasaka-dasah which is rigidly observed in the &vetambara tradition and, by making the desavakasika-vrata fol- low the dig-vrata, violates the principle by which practices of brief duration repeated at intervals are confined to the category of the siksa-vratas. Thirdly, in sutra 24 the term sila is used in a sense, normal in Digambara works but not elsewhere admitted by the Svetambaras, to designate the guna-vratas and siksa-vratas. Fourthly, for the satya -, bhogopabhoga -, anartha-danda-, posadho- pavasa-, and sallekhand-vratas the aticaras listed diverge markedly from the schema of the &vetambara texts, which, apart from the Dharma-bindu, adhere unvaryingly to the Upas aka- dasah pattern until the time of Hemacandra. Fifthly, the information supple- mentary to the vratas is limited to a couple of siitras (38 and 39) emphasizing the importance of dana, no mention at all being made of th Qdvasyakas, which are given very extensive treatment in all the Svetambara sravakacaras. As the vratas and their aticaras represent the nucleus of the whole lay doctrine any variation in their pre- sentation must be of considerable significance; and for these reasons the Tattvdrtha-siitra cannot, from the point of view of the srdvakacara, be regarded as a Svetambara work. The 3 rdvaka-prajnapti, z on the contrary, is a typically Svetam- 1 The bha$ya, which is markedly Svetambara in tone, is considered by that sect to have been written by Umasvati himself. 2 There is, incidentally, a reference to a Savaga-pcinnatti in the Vasudevci - hindi (p. 185). THE AUTHORS — SVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 3 bara production, in style and content very closely related to the Pancasakas: its treatment of the watas is exactly in accord with that of the Upasaka-dasah, and it deals extensively with the avasya - kas. When the text was published in 1905 the editor, Keshavlal Premchand, in a brief introduction in Sanskrit, discussed whether the work should be attributed to Haribhadra, to Umasvati the Vacaka, or to some other Umasvati. In support of the first hypo- thesis he cited two rather ambiguous passages, one of them drawn from Abhayadeva’s commentary on the Pancasakas . 1 However, in another quotation from the same work Umasvati is described as the author of the Sravaka-prajnapti , and the assertion is repeated by Municandra in his commentary on the Dharma-bindu , and at a much later date by Ya^ovijaya in the Dharma-samgraha. More striking is an explanation by Yasodeva, 3 in his commentary on the Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka , of the reasons which prompted Hari- bhadra to compose his treatise when Umasvati had already written the basic text on the subject, from which it is not unreasonable to infer that the Sravaka-prajnapti was already regarded by the Svetambaras as the first compilation exclusively devoted to sravaka- cara. That Haribhadra was the author of the work seems excluded by this evidence, though certain of its verses are in fact found repeated in the Puja-paiicdsaka 3 It may well be that the shared ascription of the Tattvartha-siitra and the Sravaka-prajiiapti results from a confusion of name (the use by the 3 vetambaras of the form Umasvati when the Digam- baras prefer Umasvamin lends added probability to the hypo- thesis 4 ) and that there in fact existed a Svetambara acarya named Umasvati to whom the Tattvartha-siitra, when it had already acquired general fame as an exposition of the doctrine, came also to be attributed. In any event the two works are incontestably of different authorship, and it may be added that the development of the iravakacara is only understandable if the Tattvartha-siitra is regarded as belonging originally to the Digambaras. The Sravaka-prajnapti is written in Prakrit and runs to some 400 verses. It contains a brief exposition of certain Jaina doctrines, 1 I am unable to trace any of these quotations. 2 P (Y) 1 (p. a). ^ , 3 In fact SrPr 345 — P (Puj'a) 41 ; £rPr 348 = P (Puja) 44, SrPr 349 = P (Puja) 45. . 4 I have adopted the form Umasvati for the author of the Sravaka -p raj nap ti and the form Umasvamin for the author of the Tattvartha-sutra. 4 THE AUTHORS — SVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA particularly the nature of jiva and karman; a description of samya- ktva and its aticaras; a fairly lengthy analysis and refutation of arguments commonly advanced by opponents of ahimsa ; a list of the twelve vratas and their aticaras with particular attention to the sdmayika ; a summary of the ritual of puja and caitya-vandana with an indication of the dina-carya, 1 the ideal pattern for each day’s life; a description of sallekhana; and a final exordium on the attainment of moksa. If the anteriority of this work to the Panca- iakas is taken as established it cannot be held to be later than the fifth century. Printed with the text is the Sanskrit commentary of Haribhadra, large sections of which, in particular those dealing with the aticaras of the vratas , are identical with the corresponding passages of his Avasyaka commentary. Haribhadra Virahaisika It was in 1919 that Muni Jinavijayaji, in a paper read to the First All-India Oriental Conference in Poona, showed that certain works ascribed to Haribhadra Suri must, because of the authors quoted and the views expressed in them, be subsequent to the year 529 in whichthe most commonly accepted Jaina tradition places his death. 2 Further arguments in support of a later date were to be drawn from Muni Kalyanavijaya’s introduction to the Dharma-samgra- hanu and the conclusions were reviewed and confirmed by Jacobi in his introduction to the Samar dicca-kaha, published in 1926. In all this there was a tacit assumption that the whole of the literary production ascribed to Haribhadra was the work of one man, although already, much earlier, Klatt had noted the existence of several authors of that name. 3 Amongst the writings attributed to Haribhadra there are a number which are concerned with sravakdcara, notably the Dharma-bindu, the Paiicdsakas, and the commentaries on the Avasyaka , the Srdvaka-prajnapti , and the Caitya-vandana- sutra. As a commentator is always to some extent limited by his text it 1 In the present study I have generalized the use of this convenient term em- ployed by Hemacandra (Y§ Hi. 122,). 3 See Muni Jinavijaya, Haribhadra Suri ha satnaya-nirnaya in Jaina Sahitya Sayisodhaka , pt. i, and for a summary of the arguments about Haribhadra’s date Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, ii. 479. 3 Klatt, Specimen of a Literary-Bibliographical Jaina- Onomasticon, pp. 5, 8. THE AUTHORS — £ VET AM BARA SAMPRADAYA 5 will be preferable to take a look at the first two, which are original works. They show differences as considerable as those which were apparent between the Tattvartha-sutra and the Sravaka-prajnapti. In the first place whilst the Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka is indis- tinguishable from the Sravaka-prajnapti in its rigid adherence to the 3vetambara tradition of reproducing the vratas and their aticaras, the Dharma-bindu follows for the satya-, bhogopabhoga anartha-danda and posadhopavasa-vratas (the sallekhana-vrata is not treated in the sravakacara section of this work) the model of the Tattvdrtha-siitra , except that for the third aticara of the satya-vrata the form sva-dara-mantra-bheda is preferred to sakdra- mantra-bheda. 1 However, the more logical Svetambara sequence of guna-vratas and siksd-vratas is followed. At the same time there are indications in the Dharma-bindu that its author had access to a much wider Sanskrit culture than is shown by the writer of the Pancasakas , whose outlook seems bounded by Jaina tradition. Like the Tattvartha-sutra the Dharma-bindu is written in siitra style whilst the Pancasakas are composed in Prakrit verses that appear perceptibly archaic when compared, for example, with the Dhur- takhydna , another Prakrit work attributed to Haribhadra. If we examine the legends associated with the life of Haribhadra as they are recounted by various writers all separated from the period in which he is held to have lived by very considerable in- tervals of time, these are seen to centre around two incidents : that he was converted to Jainism because he was impressed by the superior knowledge of the nun Yakini Mahattara, and that he was afflicted by remorse because he had provoked the death of certain Buddhists who had murdered his two nephews. With the second legend is associated the figure of 1,400 or 1,444 — both are familiar round numbers in Jainism — given as the total of the works he is supposed to have written, as well as the use of the word viraha as an ahka in the concluding verses of his works ; and there is a remi- niscence of the former in the colophon sometimes found : krtir iyam Sitamharacaryasya Jinabhatta-nigadanusdrino Ydkini-mahattara - siinor Haribhadrasya. It would not then seem unreasonable to sug- gest that the works bearing this colophon may belong to one writer of the name of Haribhadra and those signed with the ahka to another. Of course the wide currency of the colourful narrative 1 Haribhadra’s avoidance of the Tattvartha-sutra variant seems to confirm the supposition that this may have been originally a textual corruption. 6 THE AUTHORS — £■> VET AM BARA SAMPRADAYA by which the anka is explained, and the ease with which terminal verses can be manufactured by a copyist for a prose treatise will have made it not unlikely that the anka may in some cases be spurious; at any rate by its nature it is peculiarly susceptible of being forged. If we examine from this angle the texts under discussion, the printed editions of the Lalita-vistara, Avasyaka, and Sravdka - prajfiapti commentaries are all seen to have colophons basically identical with the specimen just given. (So too has the Prakrit Dhurtdkhydna.) Each Pancasaka, on the other hand, shows in its concluding verse the anka. These short treatises of approxi- mately, but not always, exactly fifty verses are all written in a rather archaic Maharastrl Prakrit which, particularly in the occurrence of particles which are said to be merely pada-puranas and in the use of the cases, confronts the commentators with problems which they can only answer by the phrase prakrta-sailatvat. The language con- trasts markedly with the conventional Maharastrl of the Dhurtd- khydna. The verses have clearly an essentially mnemonic value and are designed to be studied with the aid of a commentary : in- deed without it they are often unintelligible. Nothing in them suggests acquaintance with non-Jaina milieux. On the other hand the three commentaries in Sanskrit give evidence of a very wide and not purely Jaina erudition. It is of particular interest to note in the Avasyaka commentary the treatment of the aticaras of those vratas for which the Tattvartha-sutra has introduced innovations. These are interpreted on conventional Svetambara lines except for the explanation of the third aticara of the bhogopabhoga-wata : apakvausadhi where a variant reading ( pathantara ) sacitta-sammi- srahdra is noted. Admittedly the text is undeviatingly traditional, but that is no reason for supposing that the authorship of the commentary is different from that of the Dharma-bindu. Yet the Dharma-bindu , as printed, has no colophon but, on the contrary, a concluding verse with the anka which must therefore here be assumed to be spurious. What, then, I would here suggest is that the revised dating of Haribhadra (a.d. 750) introduced by Muni Jinavijaya should be assumed only for that Haribhadra who is, inter alia , the author of the three commentaries mentioned, the Dharma-bindu , and the Dhur- takhyana, and that for works written in archaic Maharastrl and bearing the anka the Jaina tradition that he died in 529 should be THE AUTHORS — 5 VETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 7 retained. 1 On this basis the Pancaiakas would belong to the beginning of the sixth century A.D. Something has already been said to indicate their characteristic peculiarities. In the printed edition they are nineteen in number, the first ten of them relating to the lay life. Of these the most im- portant for the sravakacara are the sravaka-dharma vandana - vidhana -, puja-vidhana-, stava-vidhi ~, yatra-vidhi and sramano - pasaka-pratima-pancasakas. SlDDHASENA GANIN Apart from the concise bhasya which by the Svetambaras is said to be the work of Umasvati himself but which must, if the Tattvartha-sutrais Digambara, be by another hand, the best-known Svetambara commentary on the Tattvdrtha-sutra is that of Sid- dhasena Ganin. This author, who is distinct from the more cele- brated Siddhasena Divakara and the much later Siddhasena Suri who wrote the commentary on the Pravacana-saroddhara , records •in his colophon that his guru was Bhasvamin and his guru’s guru Simhasura, pupil himself of Dinna Ganin, but these details offer no secure basis for dating. Reference is made in the vyakhyd to certain other works and if the Dharmaklrti author of the Pramana- viniscaya mentioned is the Buddhist writer of the seventh century, Siddhasena cannot well be much earlier than a.d. 800. 2 In numerous passages there is an identity of phraseology in the discussion of the aticaras of the vratas between the Tattvartha-sutra-vyakhya and Haribhadra’s Av asy aka- vrtti, 3 so striking that it seems almost inevitable that one must have borrowed from the other : it would seem that Siddhasena was the borrower. Haribhadra Yakini-putra If we accept the existence of two major figures of the name of Haribhadra it is to the second, whose date was fixed by Jinavijaya 1 An exhaustive study of all works attributed to Haribhadra could confirm or invalidate this hypothesis. Only a few of them are available in good editions and the overall picture is very confused. Thus verses 1-2 and 78-120 of the work published under ' 1 ^7 T . •; • ‘ with verses 1-2 and 8-50 of the . . y be found that the appellation Haribhadra embraces more than the two authors distinguished above. One fact seems certain: that the Dharma-bindu and the Pancaiakas cannot be by the same hand. 2 See T (S), vol. ii, Introduction, p. 63, and ABORI xiii. 335. 3 See Appendix, 8 THE AUTHORS — £VETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA at circa a.d. 750, that belong the Dharma-bindu and the Sravaka- prajnapti, Avasyaka, and Caitya-vandana-sutra. commentaries. The Dharma-bindu is a compilation of rules of conduct both for the layman and the ascetic, written, in evident imitation of the Tattvartha-sutra , in Sanskrit stitras clearer and more elegant than those of its prototype. Only the first three adhyayas are relevant to the sravakacara. The first draws a picture of the ideal layman by listing the qualities which should enter into his make-up : though the term is not used these represent in effect the earliest traceable enumeration of what Hemacandra calls the sravaka-gunas. The second adhyaya deals with methods of expounding the dharma , both by precept and example, and is clear evidence that Jainism was still a proselytizing religion. The third adhyaya is in itself a sravakacara in miniature from which nothing essential is omitted. The exposition of samyaktva and the vratas and their aticaras is followed by a picture of the daily round of life from dawn to dusk which pro- vides a framework in which to include dana and puja and the six avaiyakas . This section offers in brief compass an example of the dina-carya which was later taken as a model for srdvakaedras of the type of the £raddha-dina-krtya. As has already been noted Hari- bhadra follows the Tattvartha-sutra in his delineation of the vratas and their aticaras ; whilst for the avasyakas and other daily duties his pattern is the Sravaka-praj napti. Dhanapala This compiler of a short Prakrit verse treatise on the lay life, the Sravaka-vidhi) is presumably to be identified with the author of the Tilaka-manjari and the Rsabha-pahcasaka , who flourished about A.D. 970 . 1 Devagupta Devagupta, a suri of the Upakesa Gaccha, pupil of Kakka Acarya, and known as Jinacandra Ganin before his diksd, tells us that, although the sravaka-dharma has been expounded in many ways by the dcaryas of old, his Nava-pada-prakarana is the first attempt to present it by treating samyaktva , mithyatva, and the vratas each from nine angles. 2 These are : the nature of the vrata 1 Wmternitz, op. cit., pp. 534, 553. The text of the Smvaka-vidhi was not accessible to me. . NPP 137 (p. 61&), THE AUTHORS— gVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 9 (yadrg bhuta ) ; the varieties of it ( bheda ) ; how it comes into existence ( yathajayate ); the evil arising from neglecting it ( dosa ); the good arising from carrying it out (guna ) ; the striving to be mad e(yatana ) ; its aticaras ; its bhangas ; and the themes of meditation on it (bhavana). 1 The subject-matter can only with difficulty be accom- modated to this strait jacket and it is open to doubt if Devagupta was successful in his innovation. To explain his text, written in rather crabbed Prakrit verse, the author himself composed a Sanskrit commentary, the Laghu-vrtti, completed in samvat 1073. There is another, much more extensive, commentary composed in samvat 1165 by Yasodeva, whose identity with the author of the commentary on the Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka 2 cannot be ex- cluded. Devagupta himself is also the author of the Nava-tattva - prakarana, and is said to have written a commentary on the Tattvartha sutra . Santi Suri Santi Suri of the Candrakula Gaccha, who is said to have died in A.D. 1040, was the author of the Sira-vicara and of the Dharma - ratna-prakarana, a Prakrit verse tract on the qualities of the ideal layman and the ideal monk, which is of interest primarily as the earliest literary source for the 21 sravaka-gunas. These, together with the six types of bhava-sravaka , are described in the first 77 stanzas whilst the remaining 68 are devoted to the delineation of the bhava-sadhu. The Sanskrit vrtti, printed with the text and attributed on the title-page to Santi Suri himself, is stated by Schubring 3 to be by Devendra. Commentaries both by Santi Suri and by Devendra are mentioned as existing in manuscript. 4 Abhayadeva Abhayadeva, a suri of the Candrakula Gaccha, was a very cele- brated commentator on the canon. Both his vivarana on the Upasaka-dasah in samvat 1117 s an d his Pancai aka- vrtti in samvat 1 NPP 3. 2 Thus Yasodeva, in his Pancasaka commentary, quotes not only verses from the Nava-pada-prakarana but a large number of otherwise unidentified verses which are found in Devagupta’s Laghu-vrtti. 3 See Schubring, Die Lehre der Jainas, p. 223. 4 Velankar, Jina-ratna-koia, p. 191. 5 Ibid., p. 55. 10 THE AUTHORS — SVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 1124 1 cover the field of sravakacara. Older works utilized by him include the Sravaka-praj nap ti^ the commentaries of Haribhadra, and the Nava-pada-prakarana. Nemicandra Nemicandra, pupil of Amradeva, pupil of Jinabhadra, is distinct from the other Nemicandra, author of the vrtti on the XJttaradhy- ayana-sutra , who before diksa was called Devendra Ganin. z His Pravacana-sdroddhara is a Prakrit verse compendium of Jaina philosophy, ethics, and ritual set out as far as possible in the form of numerical apothegms. Some of these, such as the lists of abhaksyas and ananta-kayas , are of considerable importance for the development of the iramkacara. In a compendium of this kind much will certainly have been borrowed and the fact that one of the verses on the ananta-kayas is quoted by Abhayadeva in his com- mentary on the Sramka-dharma-paiicasaka is without significance as Nemicandra has quoted them from an earlier source. It is of more interest that the verses on the twenty-one sravaka-gunas have been incorporated in the text of the Pravacana-sdroddhara as this would show that Nemicandra is not at any rate earlier than Santi Suri unless the latter had taken them over ready-made from another writer. It is difficult therefore to give more than a vague approximation of the author’s date. He is not later than the twelfth century, as the commentary by Siddhasena Suri was completed in samvat 1242,3 and he may well be considerably earlier. He men- tions in verse 470 a Candra Suri, who cannot be the acarya who wrote a commentary on the Avasyaka-siitra in a.d. 1165,4 but may be the same as the author of a Munisuvrata-caritra. Municandra Nothing seems to be known with certainty of the author of the commentary on the Dharma-bindu. According to Weber he died in a.d. 1122. He may or may not be identical with the author of a Prakrit Gatha-kosa and a Ratna-traya-kalaka or with the fortieth acarya in Klatt’s list of the Tapa Gaccha.* Ya^odeva Ya^odeva, of the Candrakula 1 Velankar , Jina-ratna-kosa, p. 231. * Winternitz, op. cit., p. 496. Gaccha — his guru was Candra * Ibid,, p. 271. 3 ibid ., p. 272. 5 Suali in GSAI xxi (1908), 232. THE AUTHORS— gVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA ii Suri and his guru’s guru Vira Ganin — completed his curni on the first three Pancasakas, only the first of which has been published, in sarnvat 1172. 1 This commentary is of special interest because it is written in Prakrit (a very clear Maharastrl prose), and because though the author is careful to say that he has followed Abhayadeva in his interpretation of the text 2 he has in fact given much addi- tional information derived from earlier sources. He also composed in 1 180 a vrtti on the Paksika-sutra and is perhaps identical with the author of the Brhad-vrtti on the Nava-pada-prakarana* I-Iemacandra The Kali-kala-sarvaj na, as this remarkable man was even in his lifetime styled, though he lacked perhaps the originality of mind of Haribhadra Yakim-putra, surpassed him in the range of his knowledge. There was scarcely a branch of literature or science as then known to which he did not contribute, and his influence both on his contemporaries and on the whole subsequent history of Svetambara Jainism and through A^adhara to some extent even on the Digambaras can scarcely be overestimated. It may reason- ably be suggested that as a poet he overrated himself but he wrote excellent Sanskrit prose, only slightly tinged with peculiarities that are sometimes described as Jaina but might with more propriety be regarded as characteristic of Gujarat. To a greater degree than any other Jaina writer he had a gift for the marshalling of facts and for clear and orderly exposition. By birth a Gujarati and a member of a merchant caste he played a prominent role in the politics of his homeland and for this reason perhaps the facts of his long life (a.d. 1089-1172) are fairly well documented: as they can be found in Biihler’s narrative, 4 it would be superfluous to go into them here. His main contribution to sravakacara is to be found in the Yoga- tastra, or Adhyatmopanisad , an encyclopedic compilation on the duties of laymen and ascetics of which only the first three prakasas are here of relevance. The substance of the work lies less in the text, which, written apparently in obedience to the fashion of the day in verse, serves only as an outline, than in the commentary. This is easy to read, rich in facts, and supported by quotations from the 1 P (Y), p. 158. 2 P (Y), p. 1. 3 P (Y), Upodghata, pp. 11-13. 4 Biihler, Vber das Leben des Jaina-Monches Hemacandra , Vienna, 1889. 12 THE AUTHORS— gVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA most diverse sources. It is only to be regretted that, except when citing from other works of his own composition, Hemacandra rarely names his sources, but it is clear that he made extensive use of the Sravaka-prajnapti , the Pancasakas with Abhayadeva’s commen- taries, the Dharma-bindu, and Siddhasena’s commentary on the Tattvartha-sutra. The Yoga-iastra belongs to the close of his life, having been written about 1160. The first prakasa of the work evokes certain general principles of Jainism and sets forth the thirty-five sravaka-gunas. The second prakasa discusses samyaktva , its gunas and aticaras (i— 17) ; con- demning animal sacrifices, extols the virtues of ahimsa (18-49); and outlines the nature of the other four ann-vratas. The third prakasa begins by explaining the guna-vratas (including under the bhogopabhoga-vrata such topics as ratri-bhojana and all that the Digambaras would understand by the mula-gunas) and siksa-vratas (1-88); and then goes on to list the aticaras of the twelve matas (89-119), and to inculcate the necessity of dana (1 19-21). Verses 122-30, covered by a commentary of over a hundred pages, portray a typical day in the life of a maha-sravaka , thereby affording an opportunity for a detailed treatment of the six avasyakas and the puja; subjects of meditation for sleepless nights are given in verses 131-47; and the remaining six verses are given over to a description of sallekhana. In view of its very full picture of the life of a layman in twelfth- century Gujarat it is unfortunate that no translation of the work in a western language exists. Windisch attempted a rendering with his editio princeps of the first four adhyayas 1 but this suffered from the handicap that his manuscript contained only the verses without the commentary. For the commencement of the work there is a full translation of text and commentary by Belloni-Filippi in an Italian periodical 2 but its publication was soon abandoned. Nor does a satisfactory edition of the complete text exist, since that which was published in the Bibliotheca Indica has remained un- finished. SlDDHASENA SfiRI Little is known of this dcarya, author also of a Padmaprabha - cantra. His exhaustive commentary on the Pravacaiia-sdroddhar a is 1 2 DMG 28. a GSAI XXI. 122-232 (1908). THE AUTHORS — SVETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 13 dated a.d. 1185. 1 The sections dealing with the vratas and their aticaras have been borrowed with scarcely any changes in phraseo- logy from the Yoga-sastra , written only a quarter of a century earlier. Devendra For the medieval period the last major work on sravakacara is the Sraddh a-dina-krtya of Devendra, a suri of the Tapa Gaccha and pupil of Jagaccandra Suri, who is said to have died at Malwa in A.D. 1 270. 2 The text consists of 342 verses in conventional Maha- rastri Prakrit and is divided into eight prastavas. On this frame- work the author has constructed his own voluminous Sanskrit commentary, in bulk largely made up of illustrative stories. The pattern is that of the dina-carya , the duties of a Jaina layman being outlined first for the day and then for the fortnight, the month, and the year, so that the main emphasis is on the avasyakas , the piijd , and the individual’s obligations to the community. The vratas and their aticaras are covered by Devendra’s own commentary — the V andaru-vrtti — on the Pratikramana-sutra , which he has incor- porated into the Sraddha-dina-krtya. He has also treated certain elements of the ritual separately in the Prakrit bhasya-traya. Devendra quotes from the Sravaka-praj iiapti, the Pancasakas , the Nava-pada-prakarana , and the Dharma-ratna-prakarana. His treatment of the vratas and their aticaras is in accordance with the orthodox Svetambara tradition and shows no trace of the innova- tions made by Haribhadra and Hemacandra, but it is difficult to believe that he was not acquainted with the Yoga-sastra and not indebted to it for the general plan of his work. Like almost all Jaina writers subsequent to Hemacandra, he shows by his references to such works as the Manu-smrti and the Vatsyayana-kama-siitra 3 that he was open to the general currents of Sanskrit culture. Dharmaghosa This suri of the Tapa Gaccha, the pupil and successor of Devendra, is often known by the name of Dharmaklrti, which was his prior to diksaA He is the author of a Prakrit Sraddha-jita-kalpa in 141 verses conceived as a sort of appendix to th e Jita-kalpa-siitra , 5 1 PS: Upodghata, p. s&. 4 Winternitz, op. cit., p. 591. 2 J§rDK, pt. ii, p. 95. 5 Velankar, op. cit., p. iz6. 3 Schubring, Die Lehre der Jainas, p. 181. r 4 THE AUTHORS — 3 VETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA and of the Sanghacdra commentary on the Caitya-vandana - bhasya of his master Devendra. This latter work is stated to be not later than samvat 1327. 1 JlNADATTA Jinadatta Suri of the Kharatara Gaccha, who would seem to belong to the thirteenth century a.d., wrote a Caitya-vandana- kulaka in Prakrit verse on which, in samvat 1383, Jinakusala of the same gaccha composed a voluminous Sanskrit commentary con- sisting mainly of illustrative stories. 2 The PujA-prakaraua This twenty- verse Sanskrit tract on the piijd , which has been fathered on Umasvati, is quoted in extenso in the fifteenth-century &raddha-'vidhi of Ratnasekhara. However, there is no mention of it in the Sraddha-dina-krtya of Devendra although these two works cover the same topics and use largely the same sources. It might not be unreasonable therefore to infer that its date lies some- where between them. In view of the constant development of the ritual it is to be expected that endeavours should be made to give to innovations a spurious veneer of antiquity. Whether this tract is excerpted from, or older than, the Viveka-vilasa is not clear. Jinadatta The Viveka-vilasay a Sanskrit verse manual constructed on the dina-carya pattern and permeated with accretions from Hinduism, has sometimes been ascribed to the thirteenth century and may be later. 3 Fifteen verses from it* are found also in the Puja- prakarana. In any event it cannot be the work of the Jinadatta Suri who wrote the Caitya-vandana-kidaka. Jugalkisor Mukhtar has shown that with the addition of some introductory verses and a false colophon it circulates among Digambaras under the name of the Kundakunda-sravakacara. 5 Its contents include elaborate rules for eating and drinking and for excretion, bathing, and sleeping, some general principles of 1 Velankar, op. cit„ p. 126. 2 Ibid., p. 124. 3 It is quoted by Jinamandana in the Sraddha-guna-vivarana, by Ratnasekhara in the Sraddha-vidhi (p. 46 b), and by Yasovijaya in the Dharma-samgraha (pt. 1, p. 1266). 4 Viveka-vilasa, i. 85-97 5 Mukhtar, Grantha-parikfa, pp. 26-45. THE AUTHORS — SVETA MB ARA SAMPRADAYA 15 niti, a list of the laksanas or lucky marks of men and women, some remarks on the technique of yoga, and a long description of remedies for snakebite. Vaedhamana This suri of the Kharatara Gaccha composed an Acara-dinakara which, owing apparently to a confusion of the author with an earlier namesake, has been falsely ascribed to the eleventh century. This Sanskrit prose treatise on the kriyas or samskaras appropriate to the various phases of life, both lay and monastic, seems to have been the first Svetambara work of its kind, but from the fact that the author quotes from Hemacandra’s Yoga-sastra 1 and because the details, for example, of the piija, show a very developed stage, 2 an early date is impossible. Although the ceremonies noticed in the Acara-dinakara are very different from the fifty-three kriyas of the Adi-pnrana it seems impossible that these latter were com- pletely unknown to Vardhamana. Nathuram PremI 3 had already noted that the work could not be as old as was supposed (he suggested samvat 1500), and a recent writer in fact gives its date of compilation as samvat 1468. 4 Caritrasundara Caritrasundara Ganin, pupil of Ratnasimha, composed the Acaropadesa , a rather brief metrical srdvakacara in six adhyayas , in samvat 1487. 5 It has enjoyed considerable popularity but offers little of interest except in its details of the piija. The writer is pre- sumably to be identified with the author of an elaborate allegorical duta-kavya, the Sila-duta , dated a.d. 1420. 6 JlNAMANDANA Jinamandana Ganin was a pupil of Somasundara Suri of the Tapa Gaccha. He completed his ^ 7 7 ” . , ■ : ■ "■ 1 " . ^ correctly styled, it would seem, the ■ ■ ■■ • in samvat 1498 in the town of Anahilapattana in Gujarat. 7 1 ADK, p. 43a. 3 e.g. the description of the twenty-one snapanas required for the pratistha ritual (ADK, pp. 153-5). 3 Premi, Jaina sahitya aur itihas, p. 561. 4 V. A. Sangave, Jaina Community , p. 367. 5 Velankar, op. cit. } p. 25. 6 Winternitz, op. cit., p. 574. 7 SsrGuV : prastavana , p. 2. 16 THE AUTHORS — £VETAMBARA SAMPRADAYA This Sanskrit prose composition on the thirty-five sravaka-gunas is remarkable both for the author’s erudition and for the many curious details from Jaina tradition which he preserves. At the same time he displays great familiarity with Hindu sources. Ratna£ekhara Certain details of the life of this deary a of the Tapa Gaccha are available. Born in samvat 1452, ordained in 1463, and elevated to the dignity of suri in 1502, he died in 1517. 1 His writings — the Acara-pradipa ( 1516), the Sraddha-vidhi ( 1506), and the commen- tary on the Sraddha-pratikramana-sutra (1496) — are among the best productions of an age of decadence and show his familiarity with the canon and with the works of Hemacandra and Devendra, though traces of increasing hinduization are everywhere apparent. The Sraddha-vidhi preserves the fiction of a metrical composi- tion by its framework of seventeen Prakrit gathas divided into six prakasas, but these are manifestly only a peg on which to hang a vast Sanskrit prose treatise which imitates in its general outlines the Sraddha-dina-krtya. It might even be described as an adapta- tion of this work to contemporary conditions. Similarly the Prati- kramana commentary represents a more extensive version of Devendra’s Vandaru-vrtti. YaSovijaya Of the extensive literature on sravakacara surviving from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries only one work will retain our attention. In a.d. 1681 Manavijaya wrote a Dharm a-samgraha in Sanskrit verses apparently designed to serve as a vehicle for the comprehensive prose commentary of Yasovijaya. This great re- former, who lived from 1624 to 1688, sought to regenerate his age by a return to the teachings of the canon and had probably a better command of the whole range of Jaina literature than any man since Hemacandra. In his commentary, modelled on the Yoga- fastra, which he quotes repeatedly, but as only one of many sources, he has shown an extraordinary sureness of touch in rejecting the non-Jaina elements which had invaded the writings of predecessors like Ratnasekhara. 1 Sraddhci-vidhi: upodghata, p. 4 a. C I 7 ) THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA Kundakunda Caritra-prabhrta 2nd century (?) Umasvamin Tattvartha-sutra 3rd century ( ? ) Karttikeya DvadaSanupreksa 4th century (?) Samantabhadra Ratna-karanda-iravakacara c. 450 (?) Pujyapada S arvartha-siddhi 6th century ( ? ) Ratna-sara 8th century (?) Jinasena Adi-purana late 9th century Devasena Bhava-samgraha early 10th century Somadeva YaSas-tilaka 959 Amitagati Subhasita-ratna-sandoha 993 Sravakacara Camundaraya Caritra-sara c. IOOO Amrtacandra Purusartha-siddhy-upaya nth century Sravaka-dharma- dohaka nth century ( ? ) Vasunandin Sravakacara C. IIOO Padmanandin Dharma-rasayana 12th century (?) Asadhara Sagara- dharmamrta 1240 Maghanandin Sravakacara c. 1260 Gunabhusana Sravakacara c. 1300 (?) Padmanandin Sravakacara 15th century (?) Vamadeva Bhava-samgraha 15th century (?) Sakalaklrti Prasnottara-sravakacara 15th century Medhavin Dharma-samgraha-Sravakacara 1504 Brahmanemidatta Dharma-piyusa-Sravakacara c. 1530 Rajamalla Latl-samhita 1584 Sivakoti Ratna-mala 17th century (?) Somasena Traivarnikacara 1610 Kundakunda Amongst the many works attributed to Kundakunda two are of some relevance to the iravakacara . The summary of the rules of right conduct given in the Caritra-prabhrta devotes a few verses to the lay life, listing, inter alia , the twelve vratas. The Ratna-sara in view of some of its contents is best ascribed to a considerably later period. Much has been written on the date of Kundakunda but to little result. The tradition of the DigambarajpaZjfaflfl/fs places him in the C 737 C i8 THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA first century a.d. 1 It is noteworthy that all the works ascribed to him are in Prakrit. Upadhye has placed him in the second century. 3 Umasvamin Since Jacobi’s 3 edition and translation at the end of last century the Tattvartha-sutra , the most authoritative exposition of Jaina doctrine, regarded even by the Svetambaras with a veneration scarcely less than that accorded to the canon has been too well known to need description. Only the seventh adhyaya is concerned with the lay life. 4 Umasvamin 5 s date remains uncertain; according to the Digambara tradition he lived between 135 and 219. The reasons which have led me to regard, from the aspect of fravakacara , the Tattvartha-sutra as a purely Digambara work have been noted above. Karttikeya About a hundred verses (302 to 391 in the printed edition) of the Dvadasanupreksa or Dharma-bhavana of Karttikeya are devoted, as part of the dharmanupreksa , to a brief consideration of the lay life ; they cover the topics of samyaktva, the twelve vratas (without any indication of the aticaras ), sallekhana , and the pratimas. The dating of Karttikeya presents considerable difficulties. Upadhye 2 would put him later than Yogindu and Pujyapada, somewhere between the sixth and thirteenth centuries in fact. Jugalkisor Mukhtar 5 rejects the arguments on which this view is based and regards Karttikeya as much nearer Umasvamin in date. The special eulogy of those tirthaiikaras who were said to have been kumara-sramanas would also suggest for him that Karttikeya, too, had taken the monastic initiation whilst still a boy, whilst cer- tain other points such as the general use of the title svami with his name would lead to the belief that he belonged to south India. 1 Wintemitz, op. cit., p. 476. 2 Upadhye, Introduction to KA, pp. 67-70. 3 ZDMG k (1906), 387 ff., 512 ff, * Mukhtar has pointed out that there exists a spurious Umasvdmi-fravakacara which is no more than a haphazard assemblage of didactic verses for laymen, taken from Svetambara as well as Digambara sources (see Grantha-parlksa pp. 1-25). See Mukhtar, Purdtana Jaina-vakya suci: prastavana , pp. 22—27, for a general summary of these arguments. THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 19 Samantabhadra The Ratna-karanda-sravakacara of Samantabhadra would ap- pear to be the earliest Digambara work devoted exclusively to the exposition of the rules of conduct for a layman. It is divided into five paricchedas , the first of which deals with sainyag-darsana, the second with samyag-jnana , the third with the anu-vratas and guna-vratas, the fourth with the siksa-vratas, and the fifth with sallekhana and the pratimas. Like Umasvamin Samantabhadra has been responsible for many innovations in the fravakacara doctrine and, to an even greater extent, he has rationalized the aticaras of the vratas and given them a more universal content. Even the change in the designation of the last mat a ( vaiyamttya for atithi-samvi - bhagd) is an indication of his attitude. Many of his alterations have been rejected by almost all his successors but this notwithstanding, his influence has been far-reaching and whenever the term Svami is used alone it is to Samantabhadra that reference is made. Many legends attach to his life but little can be said of it with certainty. He would seem to have been a native of the Tamil land and to have belonged to a ksatriya family . 1 It seems difficult to assert with Hiralal Jain that the Ratna-karanda is based on the Tattvartha-stitra, the Dvadasanupreksa, and the Darsana-prabhrta of Kundakunda : 2 at the most it may be stated that in the develop- ment of the sravakacara doctrine it would seem to be posterior to Karttikeya’s work. Widely differing figures are given for Saman- tabhadra’s date. An ancient tradition puts him as early as the second century ; 3 equally it has been conjectured that he flourished in the first half of the eighth century 4 which would seem to be too late a date, if only because of the extreme veneration with which he was regarded already in Jinasena’s time. Mukhtar, after an exhaustive study of all available evidence, would go no further than to suggest somewhere between the first and fifth centuries a.d. s Arbitrarily the present writer has accepted the upper limit — circa a.d. 450 — as a probable date. Pujyapada One of the oldest and probably the most authoritative of the commentaries on the Tattvartha- siitra is Pujyapada’s Sarvartha- 1 RK: prakkathan , pp. 4-15. 2 £r (V) : prastavana, p. 45. 3 RK: prakkathan , p. 115. 4 See Winternitz, op. cit., p. 580. 5 RK: prakkathan, p. 196. 20 THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA siddhi. Pujyapada, or Devanandin, who again, it seems, belonged to south India, was also the author of a Jainendra-vyakarana in which, unless as is sometimes held this name is merely fictitious, mention is made of Samantabhadra, who must therefore be anterior to him in date. 1 On the faith of epigraphical evidence Mukhtar would place Pujyapada in the second half of the fifth century, 2 and this view is accepted by the editor of the Sarvartha-siddhi. Winter- nitz assumed that he lived before Samantabhadra and placed him between the fifth and the seventh centuries. 5 There is in existence also a sravakacara ascribed to Pujyapada. The Ratna-sara Many doubts exist on the authenticity of the attribution of this work to Kundakunda and both Schubring 4 and J ugalkisor Mukhtar 5 have expressed the opinion that the text in its present form cannot be as old as that. This little Prakrit verse tract on the ratna-traya contains at least one verse— that which refers to the fifty-three kriyas — of considerable interest for the development of th zsrdvaka- cara . Jinasena The Maha-purana , one of the most ambitious productions of Digambara Jainism, is composed of the Adi-purana and the Uttara-purana, The first forty-two parvans of the former were written by Jinasena, whose guru was Yirasena of the Sena Sahgha, and the rest of the work was completed by his pupil Gunabhadra. Both enjoyed the patronage of the Rastrakuta kings and the date of termination of this epic — a.d. 897 — has been recorded. 6 Like the Maha-bharata , which it was designed to rival, it includes many digressions of an edifying character and parvans 38, 39, and 40 are often regarded as constituting a havakacara in their own right. They are mainly devoted to a description of the fifty-three kriyas or ceremonies which mark the stages in a man’s life both as lay- man and ascetic and furnish the only extant description of these 1 Mukhtar, op. cit., pp. 150-3. 2 Phulcandra Siddhanta Sastri in T (P) Prastavana, pp. 94-96. 3 Winternitz, op. cit., p. 478, 4 Schubring, Kundakunda echt und unecht , p. 568. 5 Mukhtar, op. cit., p. 15. 6 Winternitz, op. cit., pp. 497-9. THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 21 which can pretend to any antiquity. Jinasena’s views have been held in especial reverence by all succeeding Digambara writers. 1 Somadeva The Yasas-tilaka of Somadeva is in fact a ca?npu, a romance partly in verse, partly in prose, written in 959 at Gangadhara near the modern Dharwar in the territory of the Rastrakuta kings.* Little is known of the author’s life except that he belonged to the Deva Sahgha, and his influence on later writers apart from Asadhara is not very marked. The narrative of the Yasas-tilaka does not run through the whole work: the sixth, seventh, and eighth books together constitute an excursus on the sravakacara which is often referred to as Somadeva’s Upasakadhyayana. This covers samyaktva , the twelve matas — for the five anu-vratas illustrative stories are given — and sallekhana. The section dealing with the samayika contains an exhaustive treatment of dhyana, and numerous hymns and verses on the anupreksas are included. Somadeva differs from other Jaina acaryas in not adhering strictly to the figure of five aticaras for each vrata and by his often very personal contribu-- tions to the sravakacara such as the introduction of the four categories of truth and falsehood or of the five classes of persons entitled to maintenance by the faithful. He is noteworthy, too, for the extent to which he is permeated by Vedantist concepts. Devasena There are good grounds for assuming, as is usually done, that the Bhava-samgraha and the Darsana-sara are by the same hand. Now the latter is clearly stated to have been written in the temple of Parsvanatha at Dhara in samvat 990, and since the author strongly condemns all other sects as heretical he would appear to have belonged to the Mula Sangha. The Bhava-samgraha may then be dated in the first half of the tenth century a.d . 3 This work — in Prakrit verse — gives a description of the fourteen guna-sthanas. The sravakacara section is contained in verses 350- 1 It is for this reason, doubtless, that his name has been attached to a strongly hinduized compilation on the layman’s duties known as the Trivarndcara of Jinasena. Mukhtar has characterized this work as a blatant forgery of quite recent date. See Grantha-pariksa , pp. 46 if. 2 Handiqui, p. 4. 3 Mukhtar, Puratana Jaina-vakya suci , pp. 59-61. aa THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 599> which describe the fifth guna-sthana : after a brief summary of the vratas and tnula-gunas , dhyana , piijd , and dana are described in detail. The main emphasis is on the amassing of punya and the performance of pdja and da.no , ; and, as in other srdvahacaras of a popular type, it is on the joys of the deva-loka and the bhoga- bhumis rather than on moksa that stress is laid. The Sravaka-dharma-dohaka When he edited this anonymous Apabhramsa text Hiralal Jain, 1 after eliminating Yogindradeva as a possible author, proposed its ascription to Devasena and listed a number of parallels between this work and the Bhava-samgraha. Mukhtar 2 is reluctant to accept this view and it is possible that the editor himself would no longer uphold it. The passages selected for comparison offer in fact little more than recurrences of certain cliches common in Jaina writings. On the other hand the description of the various forms of piija and results to be achieved by each of them differs considerably in the two works. If this Apabhramsa work does not then belong to Devasena it might well be a century or so later than Hiralal Jain suggests, for its enumeration of the abhaksyas seems to be more fully developed than that of Amitagati while it appears strange that its author should be the only writer before Vasunandin to mention the two divisions of the eleventh pratima. Srutasagara, in his commentary on the Sai-prabhrta, quotes eight verses from this work, which he ascribes to Laksmlcandra. 3 The Sravaka-dharma-dohaka is a compilation in some 200 Apabhramsa dohas , giving in summarized form an account of the pratimas, the miila-gunas, the vratas , dana, vinaya , vaiyavrttya , and piija. CAmundaraya The Camundaraya who wrote the Caritra-sdra is, according to Winternitz,* distinct from the minister and general of the Ganga king Racamalla ( samvat 1032-41) at whose instance the Gommata - $ 3 ra was composed. This other Camundaraya had also, however, followed the active life of a soldier before becoming a monk but nothing more seems to be known of him. 1 Doha, Bhiimika , pp. 9-19. 2 Mukhtar, Purdtana Jaina-vdkya suci, pp. 59-61. 3 Velankar, op. cit., p. 394, 4 Winternitz, op. cit., p. 587. THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 23 The Caritra-sara is a work which has received less than its due: Hiralal Jain does not even mention it in his survey of the Digam- bara sravakacaras. It is an admirably concise exposition of both the sravakacara and the yaty-acara (about a quarter only of the con- tents being devoted to the former), written in clear and elegant Sanskrit prose. The arrangement is by pratimas] and the vratas , with their aticaras and adequate explanations of these, are given under the second pratima. For the aticaras Camundaraya follows closely Pujyapada’s commentary on the Tattvdrtha-sutra, often retaining his exact wording ; as a model he has evidently preferred it to Samantabhadra’s Ratna-karanda though his familiarity with this work is evident from the very striking division of the papo- padesa category of anartha-danda into four types, and from the listing of the bhogas , which should be avoided, into five classes. Though not mentioned by name the mula-gunas are in fact dis- cussed after the vratas. Ratri-bhojana is held to be the sixth anu- vrata. After the pratimas comes a description of the sixteen bhavanas (for which again the author is heavily indebted to Pujyapada) and, by way of appendix, an account of the sallekhana ritual. Many topics normally included in & sravakacara, for example, the avasy alias, and, under the head of dhyana the anupreksas, are relegated to the yaty-acara section. Camundaraya is clearly very close to Jinasena (from whose Adi-purana he quotes) in his affiliations. He notes the four Jaina asramas , the third of which, the vanaprastha , is equated with the status of the layman in the eleventh pratima. Like Jinasena he is very open to Plindu influences and in fact quotes from the Manu- smrti. 1 Amitagati Amitagati, pupil of Madhavasena, was an deary a of the Mathura Sangha, a branch of the Kastha Sangha. 2 Munj and Sindhul are mentioned in his works and accordingly it is suggested he belonged to the literary school of Munj. 3 His Subha§ita-ratnasandoha was composed in samvat 1050 and his commentary on the Panca - samgraha in samvat 1073 3 so that his Sravakacara may well be dated within the first quarter of the eleventh century A.D. It is an extensive and comprehensive work, in Sanskrit verse, the 1 Manu-smrti , v. 55. * PremI, op. cit,, p. 172. 3 PremI, op. cit., pp. 176-7. 24 THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA first pariccheda of which is devoted to the praise of the dharma, the second to samyaktva and its opposite, mithydtva , the third to an explanation of the seven tattvas, and the fourth to a refutation of Buddhists, nastikas, and other heterodox sects. The fifth pariccheda begins the sravakacara proper with a discussion of the mula-gunas (this actual designation is not, however, employed), the sixth and seventh are devoted to the twelve vratas and their aticdras and to sallekhand and the pratmas, the eighth to the six avasyakas , and the ninth, tenth, and eleventh to the topic of dana. Puja and the seven vyasanas are covered in the twelfth, vinaya , vaiydvrttya , and svadhydya in the thirteenth, the anupreksas in the fourteenth, and dhyana in the fifteenth paricchedas. It is only in the case of the puja that the details are surprisingly exiguous. Amitagati’s treatise does not seem to bear a specially close relation to any earlier work. In another poem, the Subhasita-ratna-sandoha, he touched on similar subjects. The whole of pariccheda XXXI of this work is devoted to the basic vows of the layman and the interdictions of the mula-gunas are covered in paricchedas XX, XXI, and XXII. The Sanskrit style of both poems is characterized by a conspicuous preference for recondite grammatical forms. Amrtacandra Nothing at all is known of the life of this deary a. On the faith of a Digambara paftdvali quoted in Peterson’s eighteenth report it had been accepted— by Nathuram Premi 1 in his edition of the Puru- sartha-siddhy-upaya and by Winternitz 2 — that Amrtacandra was alive in a.d. 904. Upadhye,* in his introduction to the Pravacana - sdra y placed him somewhere between 800 and 1100 but Nathuram Premi, 4 in a later article, suggested that his date must lie between 1000 and 1350, the upper limit being given by the year of compila- tion of the Sugar a-dharmamrta in which he is quoted. Premi has also noted that in this commentary Amrtacandra is twice referred to as thakkura , a title that is usually given to the people of Raia- gharana. 5 J In its outward form the Purusartha-siddhy-upaya is a sravakacara like so many others: after a short introduction giving certain basic 3 V £ BlJ :prastavana p. 4. 2 *Winternitz, op. cit., p. S 6r frwacema-sara, ed. by A. N. Upadhye, p. 101. ’ P 5 ’ Hitaklht'iQzo Cit> P ' 458 ‘ ThlS 3rticle WaS original h published in the Jaina * * 5 See Premi, op. cit., p. 457, THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 25 principles of Jainism it discusses the ratna-traya , the twelve vratas and sallehhana with their aticaras , and tapas and the parisahas (from its position in the text a-ratri-bhojana would appear to be considered the sixth anu-vrata though it is not given this designa- tion). It is in the spirit that animates it that the work differs from all others of its kind. In rather harsh verse Amrtacandra sings the praises of ahimsd with the fervour of a mystic, always stressing his theme that all the evil man can do is in some sense an expression of himsa. The only other writer who at all approaches him in this singlemindedness is Amitagati. Vasunandin Again of this author really nothing is known. Several dcaryas of this name are recorded but it seems safe to say that the same man composed the Sravakdcdra and the Pratisthd-sara-samgraha as well as the Acara-vrtti commentary on the Miildcdra . This commen- tary quotes Amitagati, and for this reason and because Vasunandin himself is quoted in the Sagara-dharmdmrta commentary Nathu- ram Premi 1 and JugalkiSor Mukhtar 2 agree in placing him some- where between a.d. 1050 and 1200. Hiralal Jain is prepared to situate him — more precisely — in the second half of the eleventh century since his guru’s guru, Nayanandin, would seem to be identical with the author of the Apabhramsa Sudarsana-carita , composed in samvat 1 100. 3 The Sravakacdra or, as it is sometimes called, Upasakadhydyana of Vasunandin in Prakrit verse is based on th epratimd framework which allows for a description under the first pratimd of the seven vy asanas and of the misfortunes of the jiva in the four gatis, and, under the second pratimd , of tjie twelve vratas. The vratas are given rather anomalously — they do not include sdutayika and posadhopavasa , which are treated only as pratimas — and without any indication of the aticaras. The two phases of the eleventh pratimd are noted, After the pratimas follow miscellaneous topics: ratri- bhojana , vinaya } vaiyavrttya, puja , and dhyana , and the work con- cludes with a panegyric of the monk’s life. It has been shown that Vasunandin used Devasena’s Bhava-samgraha and it is probable that he was familiar with Amitagati’s Sravahacara.* 1 See Premi, op. cit., p. 457* 2 See Mukhtar, Puratana Jaina-vakya sad, p. 100. 3 See Sr (V): prastavana , pp. 18-19. 4 See Sr (V): prastamnd, p. 41* 26 THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA Padmanandin The name of the author of the Dharma-rasayana , a short verse tract in Prakrit on the four gatis, is given as Padmanandin, who can- not be identical with the writer of the Sravakacara. Of Jaina lay- doctrine it gives little more than the twelve vratas and is unusual in replacing ahimsa as the first anu-mata by ‘the non-killing of animals for sacrifice 5 . Such a formulation is not met with in any other text surveyed here but is found in the V arahga-carita of Jatila. 1 The Dharma-rasayana , which may be as old as the eleventh or twelfth century (though the use of Prakrit does not necessarily imply this), has some verses on the sufferings of the jiva in hell which are written with considerable verve. A^Adhara The author of the Sagara-dliarmamrta is a very much less shadowy figure for he has given considerable information about himself and his writings in his prasastis , and on the basis of these Nathuram PremI has reconstructed his life. Born about samvat 1235, he belonged to the Bagheravala jati one of the most im- portant vaisyajatis of Rajputana, and members of his family held appointments under the rulers of Dhara, then a considerable centre of learning, whither they had moved from Mandalgarh (Mewar) after the conquest of Delhi by Shihab al-Dln Ghori in samvat 1249. He subsequently lived for thirty-five years at Nalacha. Though later writers sometimes call him sun, he remained, according to Premi till his death — he was still alive and writing in samvat 1300— -a layman (perhaps at its close a ksullaka ). z In the course of a life devoted, it would seem, to the promotion of his religion, 3 he did not hesitate to criticize and admonish the monks, as witness the verse :4 panditair bhrasta-caritrair batharaii ca tapo-dhanaih sdsanam jina-candrasya nirmalam malinl-krtam Adadhara s erudition is remarkable, perhaps as comprehensive as that of the Kali-kala-sarvajna : he lacked only Hemacandra’s capacity to present his rich material in clear and orderly fashion. Yet, more than any other writer considered here, he possessed the 3 Varana-carita, xv 106. * PremI> cit Jina-dhamodayarthmri yo Nalakacchapure 'vasat is the phrase used in the V7 QSQStt*. 4 . r> * Premi, op. cit., p. 131. THE AUTHORS — DIGAM BARA SAMPRADAYA 27 temperament and habits of a scholar. Wherever he has discerned differences of opinion between the acaryas of old he has noted whatever he felt to be of importance, carefully indicating his sources* Thus he cites Samantabhadra (‘the Svami’), 1 Jinasena, Camunda- raya, Somadeva, Amitagati, Amrtacandra, and Vasunandin, often affording, as we have seen, valuable indications for dating them. But he did not confine himself to Digambara sources ; in fact on many points, particularly on the aticaras of the vratas, he trans- cribed whole passages from the Yoga-sdstra 2 Hemacandra is not mentioned by name but the phrase ‘ Sitambardcarya ' 2 nearly always refers to him. In this readiness to use Svetambara writings he may have been showing the same catholicity of outlook that in a later age animated Yasovijaya in his attempts to reconcile the two sects ; but it cannot be left out of account that, although he belonged to the Mula Sangha, he may also have been the inheritor of a Yapanlya tradition. Amongst his surviving works there is a commentary on the BJiaga- vati Aradhana , which, as Premi 4 has shown, may well have been a Yapanlya production (its most important commentator certainly belonged to that sect). It is particularly in the section on sallekhana , to which Asadhara attaches a quite special importance, that the influence of the Bhagavati Aradhana on the Sagara-dharmamrta is apparent. Many of the topics discussed in this work figure in no other Digambara srdvakdcara save that of Medhavin, who, as we shall see, belonged to the same sampradaya’. the mention of sthula - himsd and siiksma-himsa, the distinction of aticdra and bhahga; the tabulation of the aticaras of the brahma-vrata that may be com- mitted by women ; the catalogue of the fifteen forbidden callings ; the notation of the kumari-go-bhu classification of satya ; the refer- ence to the harming of vayu-kayas and ap-kayas under anartha- danda ; and the description of the dina-carya , the ideal daily round for the layman. All these have their analogies in the generality of Svetambara works, and though some may be direct borrowings from Hemacandra — the dina~carya is a case in point — others may stem from an earlier tradition. More significant from the angle of possible Yapanlya affiliations is the description of the rite of sallekhana when performed by women for whom nudity is then authorized.* 1 SDhAiv. 64. 2 See Appendix. 3 SDhAv. 23. 4 Premi, op. cit., pp. 3 i“ 33 - 5 SDhA viii. 38. 28 THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA The list of Asadhara’s works as given by him in his prasastis is a long one but many of those mentioned seem to have disappeared completely. Apart from some short kavyas and a number of commen- taries they include writings on logic, on ayurvedic medicine, on the technique of yoga, and on various elements of the Jaina ritual such as the piija. 1 But the most important extant works are the Sagara- dhamamrta and Anagara-dharmamrta, which are conceived on exactly parallel lines and together form a complete manual of the secular and the monastic life. The metrical text is amplified by a prose commentary which in both cases bears the name Bhavya~ kumuda-candrika . The Sagara-dharmdmrta , which alone concerns us here, was com- pleted in samvat 1296 and its commentary three years later. The plan of the work rests on the division into the three stages through which the sravaka should pursue his spiritual progress : paksika, naisthika , and sadhaka . The first two adhyayas are concerned with the paksika stage, the next five with the naisthika, and the last with the sadhaka . The first adhyaya is taken up with a consideration of samyaktm and with definitions of a number of terms, mentioning incidentally the sravaka-gunas. The second lists the mula-gunas (noting the divergent interpretations of other acaryas) and then deals in detail with puja and dana (including marriage, which is regarded as kanya-dana ). As is made clear later these terms have a different meaning for the paksika and for the naisthika. With the third adhyaya begins the consideration of the pratimas; and this chapter is in fact taken up by a condemnation of the seven vy asanas and ancillary vyasanas , which must be eschewed before the first pratima is attained. The next two adhyayas cover the twelve mat as and their aticaras , the sixth is devoted to the dina-carya , and the seventh delineates the remaining pratimas, culminating in the final stage with its divisions into ksullaka and ailaka. The last adhyaya prescribes how the sadhaka is to terminate his earthly existence by the rite of sallekhana. MAghanandin This acarya, pupil of Kumudacandra, was the author of a Srava- kacara in Sanskrit and of other works in Kannada: he belongs to circa a.d. 1260. 2 1 See PremI, op. cit., pp, 134-7. 2 Premi, Introduction to Siddhanta-saradi-mnigrciha, p. 23. This Smvakacara does not appear to have been published. THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 29 Gunabhusai^a The date of this author is very uncertain. The upper iimit is furnished by the date of the manuscript on which the printed edition of the work is based — samvat 1526. 1 At the same time he must be at least later than Vasunandin for, as Hiralal Jain 2 has shown, very many of his verses are no more than para- phrases of the Prakrit gathas of Vasunandin’s text. The editor of the Gunabhusana-sravakacdra hazards a conjecture that it may have been written in the fourteenth-century samvat .* In view of its in- debtedness to Vasunandin the importance of this work is not very great. Padmanandin The author of the Dharma-rasayana is distinct from the Pad- manandin to whom a brief metrical Srdvakacara in Sanskrit is ascribed. The contents of this latter work suggest that is not likely to be later than the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Vamadeva Vamadeva, pupil of Laksmicandra of the Mula Sangha and a kayastha by caste, is the author of the Bhava-samgraha, a Sanskrit metrical treatise covering the same themes as Devasena’s work of the same name. He quotes from the Jina-samhita, so that if this is the Jina-samhita of Ekasandhi, who belongs to the fourteenth- century samvat , he must be later than a.d. 1350. 3 The lay doctrine is covered in verses 441-619, which deal with the fifth guna-sthana. The topics treated include the pratimas, the mula-gunas, the vratas> puja, dana and, very summarily, the ava- yakas. Nathuram Premi, in his introduction to the text, is perhaps rather unjust to the author whose work he characterizes as a mere paraphrase of Devasena, 3 when in fact it contains many original elements. Sakalakirti The Dharma-prasnottara or Prasnottara-sravakacara of Sakala- kirti is an extremely voluminous verse srdvakaedra treatise in twenty-four sargas in the form of question and answer. It is a 1 Prastavana , p. 3. 2 He records these parallels in the footnotes to his edition of the lor (V). 3 BhS (V): Bhumikd , p. 7. 30 THE AUTHORS — DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA humdrum composition mainly consisting of longwinded narratives : for the details of the vratas the author slavishly follows Samanta- bhadra. Sakalaklrti is supposed to have died in a.d. 1464 1 but, to judge from style and contents, a date considerably later might more easily have been conjectured. Winternitz, 1 however, accepts the ascription of this sravakacara to the fifteenth century. Medhavin The author of the Dharma-samgraha-sravakacara tells us in his prasasti that Pandita Mlha, a ksullaka living at Hlsarapura and a pupil of Jinacandra Muni, commenced this work during the reign of Firuz Khan of Nagpur and that he, Medhavin, also a native of Hlsarapura, completed it in samvat 1561, basing it on the writings of Samantabhadra, Vasunandin, and A&idhara. 2 It might have been better had he dwelt more on his debt to Asadhara, to whose sampradaya he evidently belongs, for many of the ^vetambara features, such as the kumari-go-bhii classification and the picture of the dina-carya, not found in other Digambara works reappear in Medhavin and his treatment of sallekhana is exactly parallel. The Dharma-samgraha , which, according to the author, contains exactly 1,440 verses, is divided into ten adhikaras, the first three of which describe the Jina’s samavasarana. These have been pub- lished separately under the title of the Samavasarafia-darpanaJ The rest of the work follows exactly the arrangement of the Sagara-dharmamrta and differs from it only in certain passages that reflect increasing hinduization such as the differentiation of touchable and untouchable siidras* or new external influences such as the passage in which the author is concerned to justify the worship of images. 5 Brahmanemidatta A Dhanna-piyusa-sravakacara 6 in four adhyayas was composed by Brahmanemidatta, who also wrote a &ripcila-carita(kJD. 1528) and an Arddhmia-katha-kofa (1530). 7 1 &r (M), p p. 327-8. 1 Winternitz, op. cit., p. 592. 3 Schubring, Die Lehr e derjainas , p. 210 *Sr (M)ix a 3 3. s Sr (M) ix. 38. “ V™* was not accessible to me and in fact does not seem to have been pubhshed ’ 7 Winternitz, op. cit., p. 544. THE AUTHORS— DIGAMBARA SAMPRADAYA 3i Rajamalla The Lati-samhita , a Sanskrit verse treatise on iravakacarU written by Rajamalla Kavi at Vairat, which was part of the Mogul empire, in samvat 1641, opens with a panegyric of Akbar and his dynasty. In seven sargas it treats the mula-gimas, samyaktva, the pratimas, and the vratas , the last-named being defined by quotations from the Tattvartha-siitra . It is important in the Digambara tradition as the first work to use the terms ailaka and ksullaka 1 in their modern sense and to treat of the bhoga-patni and dharma - patni . 2 Sivakoti The j Ratna-mala of Sivakoti is a short verse tract on sravakacara of little importance and only noticed here because its author has sometimes been confused with the author of the Bhagavatl Aradhana. Premi 3 * suggests that it is modern ; it may belong to the seventeenth century. SoMASENA The Traivarnikdcara , an extensive Sanskrit metrical treatise in thirteen adhyayas , composed by Somasena in a.d. 1610, is of particular interest for its picture of a very hinduized Jaina com- munity in the Kannada country in the early seventeenth century. It advocates many practices which in Jugalkisor MukhtarV definition are contrary to Jainism. In scope it goes very much be- yond the limits of other havakacaras and contains a considerable amount of information on the Jaina law of personal status. 5 1 Lati-sainhita , vii. 55. 2 Ibid. ii. 178-83. 3 Siddhanta-saradi-samgraha ; nivedan y pp. 22-33. 4 See Mukhtar, Grantha-pariksa, pp. 98 ff. 5 Extracts from it were published by Champat Ray Jain in Jaina Law , Arrah, 1916. ( 32 ) THE RATNA-TRAYA The Jaina religion, the dharma , which leads to release from the cycle of transmigration, is made up of right belief ( samyag-drsti , samyaktvd), right knowledge {samyag-j nand) , and right conduct (samyak-caritra), which together constitute the ratna-traya or three gems, 1 sometimes also called the guna-traya . As samyag-drsti implies faith in the dogmas of the religion and samyag-jnana accurate knowledge of those dogmas, many writers, especially among the Digambaras, have found it desirable to pre- face to their sravakacaras a more or less extensive summary of Jaina doctrine, particularly of the nature of jiva and karman. Thus, for example, Somadeva, 2 Amitagati ,3 and Vasunandin 4 commence their treatises by a discussion of the seven tattvas or padarthas, the basicsubjects ofbelief. More thoroughly treated in other works, these may be left out of account here as of no direct relevance to the practical aspects of the sravakacara y but a few categories to which reference is frequently made in the exposition of the matas are worth listing: Thus there are nine ‘matrices of the doctrine’ (pravacana-matr), consisting of three forms of self-control (gnpti) : (1) curbing of activity of speech ( vag-gupti ); (2) curbing of activity of body {kaya-gupti ) ; (3) curbing of activity of mind (mano-gupti); and five rules of conduct ( samiti ) : (1) care in walking (irya-samiti ) ; (2) care in speaking (bhasa-samiti) ; (3) care in accepting alms {esana-samiti ) ; (4) care in taking up and setting down {ddana-niksepa-samiti) ; (5) care in excreting (utsarga-samiti). Of the many complex and sometimes highly artificial divisions conceived for the category of jiva, two are commonly used: 4 ' Handi< J ui . PP- 346-52. 3 Sr (A) iii. THE RATNA-TRAYA 33 The six jiva-nikayas (the first five of which are collectively styled sthdvara-jivas) are: (1) earth bodies (prthvi-kaya) ; (2) water bodies ( ap-kaya ); (3) fire bodies ( tejah-kaya ) ; (4) wind bodies ( vayu-kaya ) ; (5) plant bodies ( vanaspati-kaya ) which may be either sadharana or pratyeka ; (6) bodies with the power of movement ( trasa-kdya ). The nine jivas are: (1) with one sense organ (ekendriy a prthvi-kaya) \ (2) „ „ ,, (ekendriy a ap-kaya); (3) „ „ „ (ekendriy a tejah-kaya); (4) ,, „ „ (ekendriy a vayu-kaya); (5) ,, ,, ,, (ekendriy a vanaspati-kaya); (6) with two sense organs (dvindriya) ; (7) with three sense organs (trindriya) ; (8) with four sense organs (caturindriya) ; (9) with five sense organs (pancendriya). There are four passions (kasaya) : ( 1 ) anger (krodha) ; (2) pride (mana) ; (3) deceit (maya) ; (4) greed (lobha) ; and nine quasi-passions (akasaya, no-kasaya) : (1) laughter (hasya); (2) liking (rati) ; (3) disliking (arati) ; (4) sorrow (ioka) ; (5) fear (bhaya) ; (6) disgust (jugupsa) ; (7) male sex urge (putn-veda) ; (8) female sex urge (stri-veda) ; (9) androgyne sex urge (napumsaka-veda). Most of these recur again in the category of the papa-sthdnas or occasions of sin. 0 787 p 34 THE RATNA-TRAYA On the road to liberation from karman fourteen stages or guna- sthanas are counted of which the fifth is that of the Jaina layman. This desa-virati-guna-sthana sometimes gives occasion, in works devoted to the guna-sthanas, for an exposition of the sravakacara. For the Digambaras sravakacara belongs to a division of their substitute canon or catur-veda which they term carananuyoga covering works on moral conduct and religious duties. Such treatises are therefore mainly concerned with the third ratna : samyag-caritra. This varies according to whether it applies to the monastic lif c(yaty-acara) or the lay life [sravakacara) . Amrtacandra 1 characterizes the former as the complete, and the latter as the partial, abstinence from himsa. The lay life represents, in effect, a compromise expressed originally in the imposition of twelve vratas defining the householder’s samyag-caritra , and for each of these the XJpasaka-da&dh cited five typical offences. Samyaktva has in a sense, by the Svetambaras as well as by the Digambaras, been assimilated to the status of a vrata and fitted with an apparatus of five infractions or aticaras which, absent from the canon, are found enumerated at least as early as the Tattvartha- sutra-* and in fact a discussion of samyaktva comes to be an essen- tial element of any work devoted to the lay life. The word dharma is interpreted ‘as that which puts the soul in the place of salvation' (atmanam mukti-sthane dhatte) or ‘that which sustains beings in the cycle of transmigration' (samsdra-sihane pranino dharate ). 3 There are two dharmas or rules of conduct, one applicable to the monk’s and the other to the layman’s life. The latter is defined by Camundaraya* as the successive attainment of the eleven pratimas. The Tattvartha-sutra 5 had laid down the monk’s dharma to consist of ten elements, in the main, abstract virtues : (1) forbearance (k§amd ) ; (2) humility (mardava ) ; (3) uprightness ( drjava ) ; (4) desirelessness ( kauca ) ; (5) truthfulness [satya ) ; (6) self-discipline {samyama ) ; (7) self-mortification (tapas ) ; 5 c _ * T vii - 23. 3 CS, p. 3 . l ix. 7. See Schubring, Die Lehre der Jainas> pp. 193-3, RK i. 3. THE RATNA-TRAYA 35 (8) renunciation ( tyaga ) ; (9) poverty ( akincanya ) ; (10) celibacy (< brahmacarya ). The elements of this tenfold ascetic dharma are sometimes trans- ferred, not always appropriately, to the lay life; 1 but more generally the layman’s dharma is said to consist of four elements : 2 (1) almsgiving (dana ) ; (2) virtue (sila) ; (3) ascetic practices (tapas ) ; (4) spiritual attitude ( bhava ). The word sila is often ambiguous : here it would seem to mean the maintenance of all the vratas , 3 There is a slight variation in the four elements of dharma as defined by Asadhara : 4 (1) dana\ (2) sila ; (3) upavasa (this is equivalent to tapas , which in practice means ‘fasting 5 ) ; (4) Pm- e.g. Padmanandi-sravakacara, 59. 3 Sr(A)xii, 41. z e.g. AU vi. 3. 4 SDhA vii. 39. CATEGORIES OF SRAVAKAS V arious etymologies are given for this, the commonest term used to designate a layman. The sravaka is one who listens ( irnoti ), or one who has recourse to faith (sraddhalutam srati ), or one whose sins flow away from him (sravanti yasya pcipani ). 1 With the noma , sthapana y dravya, bhava category we find: 2 (i) nama-sravaka — one who is a Jaina in name only, just as a poor slave may bear the appellation of a god ; (ii) sthdpana-sramka — the statue of a layman; (iii) dravya-sravaka — one who carries out the rites obligatory for a Jaina but who is empty of spirituality; (iv) bhava-sravaka — a believing Jaina. Amongst the Digambaras Camundaraya 3 has taken over the Hindu concept of the four asramas, which, following Jinasena,* he terms brahnacarin, , grhastha , vanaprastha , and bhtksu. i. The brahmacarin may be: 5 (i) upanaya-brahmacarin— the young student who after the upanayana ceremony studies the agama before entry into the household life ; (ii) avalamba-brahmacarin — one who passes a novitiate as a monk studying the agama in the ksullaka stage but then goes back to the household life; (iii) adiksa-brahmacarin— one who studies the agama without taking orders or wearing the monk’s garb, but adheres to the household life; (iv) gudha-brahmacarin — one who becomes a boy ascetic (kumcira-sramana) but later abandons this higher ideal for the household life either of his own volition or owing to pressure from a ruler or from relatives or because of parisahas; (v) naisfhika-brahmacarin — a man who begs his food, wears a red or white loincloth and the sacred thread on his chest, and has his hair shaven save for a top-knot. r (M) ix. 280 . 4 e.g. by Somadeva, 5 e.g. Haribhadra Yakinl-putra. 6 e.g. in the commentary of DhRP 21 . 7 SDhA i. 19-ao. 8 Sr (M) v. 1-8. 38 CATEGORIES OF gRAVAKAS (ii) naisthika 1 — one who pursues his path upwards through the pratimas till he reaches the eleventh. At this culminating point (nistha) he quits the household life and practises the tenfold dharma of the ascetic. It would seem that if he back- slides he is down-graded to the state of a paksika: 2 (iii) sadhaka — one who concludes ( sadhayati ) his human incar- nation in a final purification of the self by carrying out sallekhana. A^adhara, who repeats Camundaraya’s categories of brahmacarins 3 and the list of the four asramas , also gives a classification of the sravaka based on his progress through the pratimas : 4 (i) least satisfactory (jaghanya) — first to sixth pratimas— grhin ; (ii) next best (madhyama) — seventh to ninth pratimas — varmn ; (iii) best ( attama or utkrsta) — tenth and eleventh pratimas — bhiksuka. This is based on a similar grouping by Somadeva, who calls the varnin a brahmacdrin. 1 Is in fact equivalent to a naitfhika-brahmacarin and to what is later called a bfullaka. 2 SDhA iii. 4. 3 SDhA vii. 19-30, < SDhA iii. 2-3, y CATEGORIES OF FOOD The descriptions of th e posadhopavasa and of the forms of pratya- khyana are not intelligible without an explanation of the classifica- tions of what may be eaten or drunk. Prohibited foods ( abhaksyas ) are discussed separately elsewhere. In the first place there are the fourfold aliments ( caturvidhahara ) : 1 1 . asana — all that is swallowed : grains and pulses of all kinds, particularly the staple, boiled rice. Forbidden foods falling under this head include meat and the tuberous vegetables, which are condemned as ananta-kayas. Dairy products are also sometimes covered by this designation. 2. pana — all that is drunk: water, milk, the juice of fruits such as grapes and tamarinds, and the water in which rice or barley or other cereals have been boiled, particularly rice-gruel {kahjika or saumra). Prohibited under this head are alcohol and the liquid from meat. 3. khadima — all that is chewed or nibbled: fruits and nuts such as mangoes, dates, almonds and coconuts, dairy products, sugar and molasses, and various cakes and sweetmeats. Abhaksyas com- ing into this category include honey and the udumbara fruits. 4. svadima — all that is tasted or serves as a relish: pepper, cumin seeds, myrobalans, ginger, herbs such as basil, and betel. Sugar-cane, molasses, and honey are also sometimes put into this category. More surprisingly toothpicks ( dantavana ) are covered by this designation. There is another classification of food — or rather of certain articles of food — into ten vikrtis: 2 (1) ksira — milk, which may be of five kinds according to whether it comes from the cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, or camel; (2) dadhi — curds \ (3) navanita — butter I these may be from cow s, buffalo s, j goat’s or sheep’s milk, but not from (4) ghrta — ghee J camel’s milk; 40 CATEGORIES OF FOOD (5) taila — oil, which may be of four kinds: sesamum, flax (atasi), mustard, and saffron ( kusumbha ). Other oils are not for consumption as food but are used for preparing plaster or for sticking; (6) guda — molasses; (7) madya — alcohol, which may be of two kinds: from sugar- cane juice or from the fermentation of grain ; (8) madhu — honey, which may be of three kinds ; made by bees (bhramara), by flies ( maksika ), or by kuttiya; 1 (9) mamsa — meat, which again is said to be of three kinds : of birds, beasts or fishes; sometimes, however, this threefold division is explained as skin, meat, and blood. (10) avagahima — the term is difficult to translate: it is the pro- duct which results from cooking rice in a pan filled with ghee or oil; after the third cooking in the oil there is no further production of avagahima and the rice cooked will be nirvikrtika . Food is also distinguished by four flavours or rasas\ z (1) go-rasa — milk flavour comprising ghee, butter, and curds; (2) iksu-rasa — sugar flavour including molasses and honey; (3) phala-rasa — fruit flavour covering fruits such as mangoes; (4) dhanya-rasa — cereal flavour comprising oil and rice-gruel. The essential idea of a vikrti seems to be that of a foodstuff that has changed its nature owing to a process of cooking or to bacterio- logical action. In the conventional interpretation of the commenta- tors it is ‘that by which tongue and mind are perverted.’ 2 The expression acamamla deserves a special mention. This is a sanskritization of the Prakrit which is also rendered as ayamamla and acamla . It consists of grain or pulses cooked only in water with a sour flavouring (amla-rasa). * No satisfactory explanation of this word (the enumeration Sthananga-sutra ) seems to have been eiven ’SDhAv. 35. * goes back to the SAMYAKTYA AND MITHYATVA Samyaktva or samyagdrsti , in the translation generally used: ‘right belief’ , is defined by Pujyapada and Camundaraya as ‘faith in the path to final liberation indicated by the JinaY Other Digambaras such as Samantabhadra, Somadeva, and Yasunandin describe it with greater precision as faith in the three articles of belief : 2 apta (the Jina), agama (the scriptures), and padartha or tattva (the dogmas). Others again prefer to visualize it from the negative angle as the absence of twenty-five blemishes ( drg-dosas ) generally held to be the eight madas, the three mudhatas , the six anayatanas , and the eight dosas . These blemishes are carried to a higher total in some works such as the Ratnasara , which adds to the above list the seven bhayas or types of fear, the five aticaras , and the seven vices or vy asanas. For the Svetambaras from the Pancasakas 3 onwards samyaktva means faith in the truths enunciated by the Tlrthan- kara. Hemacandra 4 calls it ‘faith in the right deva , the right guru, and the right dharma\ The subject of samyaktva is too vast and too imprecise to lend itself readily to numerical categorization and there is considerable confusion and overlapping in the lists of qualities and defects con- ceived to describe it. Here are some of the categories used by different acaryas, Digambara and £vetambara: Linga Guna Bhusana Anga | Do§a Aticara sarpvega sarrtvega sthairya nih^anka 3anka sahka 4ama upasama kausala nihkank§a karik§a kahk§a nirveda nirveda tlrtha-seva nirvicikitsa vicikitsa vicikitsa astikya bhakti bhakti amudha-dr§ti muvetambara and Digambara. (ii) Desire (kanksa). This again, like the preceding aiicdra , will tarnish samyaktva but not eradicate it. It is generally held to imply a hankering for other doctrines than Jainism, for one particular one if it is partial and for all in general if it is total . 3 Such a desire may be provoked by hearing that the Buddhists, for example, put no restriction on eating and drinking or bathing or easy living. It is wrong — in fact it amounts to a nidana — to cherish such purely material desires as to be handsome, or to have many sons, or to be reborn as a king, seeing in them a recompense for adherence to the right faith. (hi) Repulsion (vieikitsa). Two interpretations of this are given by the Svetambaras* from Siddhasena Ganin onwards: either it means hesitation or doubt about the value of the results of various human activities (not about the tenets of Jainism as in the case of the first aticara) ; or else it means repugnance for the bodies of Jaina ascetics because these are evil-smelling owing to the accumu- lation of filth and sweat on their unwashed limbs. What hinders them from bathing in water that has been rendered sterile, people ask, oblivious of the fact that a monk must insist on the impuritv of the body. 1 T (P) vii. 23 . 3 Ibid. (pp. 187-8). 2 Y£§ ii. 17 (p. 187). 4 Ibid. (p. 189). SAMYAKTVA AND MITHYATVA 47 (iv) Admiration of adherents of other creeds ( para-pasandi - prasamsa). (v) Praise of adherents of other creeds ( para-pasandi-samstava ). The distinction between the fourth and fifth aticaras seems artificial. As has been noted they both have for antonym the ahga of amudha-drsti and in fact Somadeva 1 couples them together under the designation of anya-slagha or mudhata. With that excep- tion the Digambaras (for example, Camundaraya) 2 define prasamsa as ‘praise expressed in the mind’ and samstava as ‘praise expressed in words’. The Svetambaras* interpret praiamsa as ‘praise’ and samstava as ‘acquaintance’. Siddhasena Ganin ,4 however, prefers the Digambara explanation. For many writers these two aticaras give an occasion to describe and criticize the false beliefs of other sects — 180 varieties of kriya- vadinsy 84 of dkriya-vadins , 67 of ajiidnikas , and 32 of vainayikas are listed — particularly the Buddhists and Saivas. 5 As was mentioned at the beginning the aticaras and dosas are not the only blemishes of samyaktva. The six andyatanas or non- abodes (sc. of right belief 6 ) appear to be a purely Digambara category : (i) false divinities ( ku-deva ) ; (ii) false ascetics ( kn-lingin ) ; (iii) false scriptures {ku-sastras) ; (iv) worship of false divinities (ku-deva-seva) ; (v) worship of false ascetics ( ku-lingi-sevd ) ; (vi) worship of false scriptures ( ku-sastra-seva ). Together* these andyatanas amount to mithydtva — the direct opposite of samyaktva — which is defined by Hemacandra 7 as belief in false divinities, false gurus, and false scriptures. For the .Svetambaras mithydtva may be of five types: 8 (i) ahhigrahika — the attitude of those whose horizon is limited to their own scriptures which they are able to defend in discussion; (ii) andbhigrahika — the attitude of simple people who imagine that equal respect is to be shown to all gods, teachers, and creeds ; 1 Handiqui, p. 258. z CS, p. 4. 3 Y!§ ii. 17 (p. 189). 4 T (S) vii. 19 (p. 102). 5 Ibid. (pp. 100-2). 6 Handiqui, p. 257. 7 Y& ii. 3. 8 NPP 4. 48 JAINA YOGA (iii) abhinivesika — the attitude of those who, like Jamali, possess the faculty of discernment but deformed by some evil pre- conception ( abhinwesa ) ; (iv) samsayika — a state of uncertainty or hesitation between various viewpoints ; (v) anabhogika — the innate state of false belief typical of living organisms which have not attained to a higher stage of development. The Digambaras prefer a division into three types : 1 (i) agrhita — an inherent, non-acquired quality found even in the lowest stages of living organisms ; (ii) grhtta — an attitude acquired, for example, by birth in a family which professes a false creed; (iii) samsayika — an attitude of indecision as in the previous list. Or else a sevenfold category : 2 (i) ekantika — the absolute attitude as, for example, the belief that the jwa perishes ; (ii) samsayika — the attitude of uncertainty about the right faith as in the previous lists ; (iii) vainayika— the view that all gods, gurus, and scriptures are alike; (iv) grhita — the attitude of acquired habit like the leather- worker’s dog which gnaws hides; (v) vipanta — the view that what is true is false and vice versa ; (vi) naisargika— the inherent false belief of creatures devoid of consciousness which, like a blind man, cannot discern fair from foul. This is equivalent to the agrhita of the previous list, or the anabhogika of the first list; (vii) mudha-drsti — the false belief where the divinity, the guru, and the dharma are sullied by passion and violence. This mudha-drsti which is more properly one of the dosas of samyaktva is presented in a more detailed form in the category of the three mudhatas or foolish ideas relating to the divinity, to the teacher and to worldly life. These seem to be listed only by the Digambaras but Hemacandra and other Svetambaras find the same opportunity for criticizing the superstitions of other religions 1 SDhA i. 5. 2 Sr (A) ii. 1-13. SAMYAKTVA AND MITHYATVA 49 when they discuss the nature of the ku-deva , ku-guru, and ku- sastra. (i) Devata-mudhata . It is a misconception of the nature of the divinity, says Samantabhadra , 1 to worship devas stained with pas- sion and hate in order to obtain a boon. Hemacandra 2 characterizes the ku-devas or a~devas as addicted to women (symbolizing raga), weapons (symbolizing dvesa ), and rosaries (symbolizing moha), and accustomed to inflict punishments or grant boons. All these attri- butes are inappropriate to the Jina who is devoid of passion, hate, and delusion. The deities that take pleasure in dancing, music, and theatrical performances cannot offer their votaries any lasting good . 3 * In this connexion Hemacandra delivers a long attack on Hindu religion condemning particularly the worship of the sacred cow. (ii) Pasandi-mudhata. Samantabhadra* defines this as the praise of false ascetics who are engaged in worldly occupations, who have not divested themselves of possessions, and who are guilty of hitnsa. By false gurus Hemacandra 5 understands those who lust after women, gold, lands, and houses, who do not refrain from the consumption of meat, honey, alcohol, and ananta-kayas, who do not keep vows of chastity but are attached to wives and children, and who preach false doctrines. (iii) Loka-mudhata. As such worldly foolishness Samantabhadra 6 instances the bathing in rivers or in the ocean, the making of heaps of stones or sand, the throwing oneself from a precipice, and the entering into fire. Equally senseless are such customs as the use of the panca-gavya and the adoration of trees, stones, gems, and other material objects . 7 Among the twenty-five drg-dosas mentioned earlier occur the eight madas 8 or forms of vainglory: (i) pride in one’s knowledge (jndna); (ii) pride in one’s worship (puja ) ; (iii) pride of family (kula) p (vi) pride of caste (jdti) ; 9 (v) pride in one’s strength (bald ) ; 1 RK i. 23. 2 Yg ii. 6. 3 Yg ii. 7. 4 RK i. 24. s ii. 9. 6 RK i. 12. 7 YJ§ iv. 102. 8 RKi. 25. 9 Perhaps better translated following Jinasena (MP xxxix. 85) ‘paternal ancestry* and ‘maternal ancestry’. 50 JAINA YOGA (vi) pride in one’s wealth (; rddhi ) ; (vii) pride in one’s ascetic practices ( tapas ) ; (viii) pride in one’s beauty (vapus). Various classifications of samyoktm are given particularly by the Digambara acdryas , the most widespread being the threefold division into ksayika , aupasamika, and ksayaupaiamika varieties which depend on the extent to which karmic matter has been removed from the jwa. J Closely associated with samyaktva is the category of the three salyas which the Digambara writers 2 generally define before dis- cussing the watas. These are the harmful stimuli or ‘stings’ which distract the person who has attained to right belief : (i) deceit (mdya ) ; (ii) hankering for worldly pleasures and fame {nidana ) ; (iii) false belief (mithyatva). And, unless he rids himself of these salyas, he cannot properly observe the matas. The Svetambaras do not seem to employ the term salya in this sense but Abhayadeva, in his commentary on the Upasaka-dasah, 3 quotes a verse in which the salyas seem to be equated with the aticaras of samyaktva. THE MOLA-GUNAS Probably no term of Jainism is used to cover so many different categories as the word guna. The mula-gunas for the ^vetambaras 4 mean generally the five anu-vratas (though sometimes a single mula-guna — ahimsa is mentioned) whilst the guna-vratas and siksa-matas together make up the uttar a-guyas . The Digambaras, however, apply the name mula-guna 1 5 to a category of interdictions which must be respected if even the first stage on the ladder of the pratimas is to be attained. Similar concepts are not foreign to Svetambara Jainism but they are not displayed with the same prominence nor is the designation mula-guna ever applied to them. 1 Handiqui, p. 355. 2 T (P) vii. 18. 3 UD i. 70 (p. 26): sank-ai-salla. 4 m I3G ( p , 696). s Asadhara opposes the mula-gunas as a category to the agra-gunas by which he understands the twelve vratas (SDhA iii. y—\ 8), A similar term reappears in Medhavin, who speaks of the agra-pada (§r (M) v. 4). 51 THE MtFLA-GUl^AS The following table will show the variations that occur among Digambara writers in determining these mula-gunas : Amrtacandra Amitagati * Aiadhara Sravaka-dharma- doha, Devasena, Medhavin, Saka- lakirti, Rajamalla , Somasena Samantabhadra Sivakoti Jinasena Gamundaraya Somadeva Aiadhara ASadhara (1) > \ \ apta-nuti (z) daya (3) udumbara- anu-vrata- anu-vrata- jala-galana pancaka- pancaka pancaka virati (4) a-ratri-bhojana (5) i udumbara-pancaka- ) / ) virati (6) marnsa-virati mamsa-virati marps a -virati ! marnsa-virati (7) madya-virati madya-virati madya-virati madya-virati (8) madhu-virati madhu-virati dyuta-virati madhu-virati In the sense given to the term by the Digambaras there is no canonical authority for the mula-gunas and for this reason it is all the more important to determine which enumeration of them is likely to have been the original one. The Ratna-karanda 1 2 is the oldest text under review to mention this category. But as has been noticed elsewhere Samantabhadra is responsible for many innova- tions in the iravakacara , and the same observation can be made with equal appropriateness about Jinasena. Yet it seems difficult to believe that, had Samantabhadra’s version been the original one, the anu-vratas as mula-gunas would have been replaced by the udumbaras in other lists, least of all by a writer like Amrtacandra whose work is the direct antithesis of the popular sravakacaras. And if the anu-mata-pancaka wears a new look in comparison with the udumbara-pancaka-virati Jinasena’s version in which dyuta is linked with mamsa and madya has even more unmistakably the air of having been refurbished. In this con- text it is perhaps not irrelevant to note that Asadhara , 3 who offers 1 Amitagati, who does not employ the actual term mula-gunas, adds a ninth element: a-ratri-bhojana (!§r (A) v. i). 2 RK iii. 20. 3 SDhA ii. 2-3. 5* JAINA YOGA three variant enumerations of the miila-gunas clearly prefers that of Amytacandra. If this last list is examined more closely the impression of its authenticity is confirmed. The apparently disparate elements — the five udumbara fruits and three forbidden vikrtis : meat, alcohol, and honey — from which abstention is enjoined have one aspect in common: they are all used as offerings to the spirits of the ances- tors. Now of all Hindu customs that which has met with the keenest reprobation from Jainism has been the custom of iraddha and the offering of sacrifices to the pitrs . 1 That sraddha in an innocuous form has been accepted by Jains in modern times in no way invalidates this contention; even a work as late as Vamadeva’s Bhava-samgraha can declare that those who propitiate the pitrs with meat consume their own gotra . 2 The cult of the ancestors is linked, as Meyer 3 has shown, with the worship of fertility spirits including the Great Mother, and since the bee is believed to incarnate the pitrs honey is used as an offering to them. Przyluski 4 has noted the epithet Aditi madhu - kasa ‘she whose whip is of honey’ because honey is held to be, among all foodstuffs, that which gives the most vigour. For Ami- tagati, in the Subhasita-ratna-samdohap the common characteristic of meat, alcohol, and honey is their aphrodisiac quality. The udumbaras , perhaps because they live long and have nutritive fruits, perhaps because of their milky latex, have been identified with the source of all fertility, and possibly owing to the ceaseless rustling of their leaves have been regarded as homes of the spirits of the dead . 6 In Jaina number magic there is often an interplay between the groups of five and the groups of four (and its multiples) ; thus the five anu-vratas are made up to a total of twelve by the addition of the guna-vratas and siksa-vratas. It may be that originally the Digambaras had inherited a tradition — a tradition, perhaps, in which the designations alone had survived — of twelve uttara- gunas (which were the vratas) and five (later transformed into eight) mula-gunas . For a religion, at that date essentially missionary, the 1 Note, for example, Y§ ii. 47 for the whole argument of the Dharma-rasayana. 2 BhS (V) 443. 3 Meyer, Trilogie altindischer Machte und Feste der vegetation, Pt. iii, pp. 77 if. 4 Przyluski, La Grande deesse , p, 30. s Subhdfita-ratna-sairidoha, xxi. 13; xxii. 18; xx. 24. 6 Przyluski, op. cit., p. 80. THE MtjLA-GUI}TAS S3 first step before a layman could assume the vratas would be for him unambiguously to reject the cult of the ancestors by a religious inter- diction of the offerings most commonly associated with that cult. The udumbaras are the fruits of five trees of the genus Ficus: (i) umbara, udumbara — Ficus glomerata Roxb. ; (ii) vata, nyagrodha — Ficus bengalensis ; (iii) pippala, a^vattha — Ficus religiosa Linn.; (iv) plaksa — Ficus infectoria Roxb. ; (v) kakombari, guphala — Ficus oppositifolia Willd. In the older texts the udumbaras are not ananta-kayas though the sixteenth-century Digambara Rajamalla 1 says explicitly that the word udumbara is the symbolic representation (upalaksand) for the sadharana plants. The reason for not eating them is that they are full of innumerable tiny insects and of invisible living organ- isms, the epithet krmi-kulakida which is often applied to meat being used of them . 2 A pious man, Hemacandra 3 says, should avoid them even if he is hungry and unable to obtain any other food. Sometimes the trasa-jivas are said to be present only in the moist fruits but even the eating of the dried fruits is sinful because of the raga involved . 4 In the Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka the udumbaras are coupled with the atyangas and the ananta-kayas in the interdictions covered by the bhogopabhoga-vrata ; if the atyangas mean the ma-karas there is here a virtual equivalence with the mula-gunas but there seems to be no absolute ban on eating the udumbaras until the layman reaches the stage of the sacitta- tydga-pratima. 5 Similarly Siddha- sena , 6 discussing the aticaras of the bhogopabhoga-vrata , cites as examples of sacitta-sambaddhahara the consuming of jujubes or udumbara fruits because large numbers of seeds are swallowed. By the time of Devagupta 7 the attitude towards the udumbaras has become clearer : the second guna-vrata is defined as limiting the use of clothes, unguents, and other items of personal expenditure and as banning the three ma-karas (mamsa, madhu y madya) and the five udumbaras ; and in Hemacandra this eightfold ban is given an 1 Lati-saijikita , ii. 79. 2 This phrase, one of the commonest of all Jaina cliches, is also found in Bhartrhari’s NUi-satcika, 3 YS iii. 43-43. ^ PASU 73. 5 P (&UP) 24. 6 T (S) vii. 30. 7 NPP 75. 54 JAINA YOGA importance almost equivalent to that of the mula-gunas in Digam- bara texts. 1 The eating of meat and drinking of alcohol are also catalogued among the seven vyasanas and a confusion, deliberate or involun- tary, of vyasanas and mida-gunas is doubtless responsible for Jinasena’s 2 mention of gambling ( dyuta ) and for the enumeration found in a late writer, Vamadeva,3 w ho obtains a figure of eight mula-gunas by reckoning together abstention from the udumbara pentad, the ma-kara triad, ratri-bhojana, whoring, adultery, theft, and gambling with jtva-daya (compassion for living beings). Meat, alcohol, honey, and butter (which too is an abhaksya though not coming under the interdictions imposed by the mula- gunas ) are vikrtis — the four harmful vikrtis. The eating of meat is, above all, a sin against compassion and the guilt belongs not only to the actual slaughterer but to anybody who buys or sells, cooks or carves, or gives or eats meat as in fact the Hindu dharma-sastras confirm. To eat meat is to acknowledge vultures, wolves, and tigers as one’s gurus. Some people, continues Hemacandra (allud- ing to the sraddha ), 4 not only eat meat themselves but offer it to the devas zn&pitrs. The Digambaras tend to emphasize the sharp distinction be- tween eating meat which contains trasa-jivas and fruits or corn in which there are present only sthavara-jivas . s Even where a bull or buffalo has not been slaughtered but has died a natural death the consumption of its flesh involves the destruction of the minute living organisms (nigodas) that have found refuge there and these continue to come into existence in meat either raw or cooked or in process of cooking so that very great himsa is caused even by touching a piece of it. The eating of meat, says Asadhara, 6 increases the lusts of the flesh and keeps a man wandering in the samsara. While some writers tend to stress the pernicious effects of alcohol in befuddling the mind of the drinker others are more con- cerned with the inevitable himsa involved in the process of fer- mentation. Thus Somadeva 7 and Asadhara 8 refer to the immense number of jtvas transformed into a drop of alcohol and the former adds that sometimes in the cycle of transmigration beings are metamorphosed into wine to bemuse the minds of men. 1 Yg iii. 8-43. ^ MP xxxix. 8. 3 BhS (V) 448, 4 Yg iii. 39-31. 5 PASU 65-68. 6 SDhA ii. 8. 7 Handiqui, p. 363. 8 SDhA ii. 4. THE MOLA-GUIiTAS SS Honey is condemned by Somadeva 1 because ‘it is pressed out of the young eggs in the womb of bees and resembles the embryo in the first stage of its growth*. To provide but a single drop, says Amrtacandra, 2 bees have to be killed and even if they have been driven by some artifice from the comb or if the honey has dripped down of itself himsd will still occur since other living creatures find their way into it. This same honey is unclean because it is derived from the vomit or spittle of insects and even though it may possess medicinal properties it will still lead to hell. Hemacandra 3 mentions especially the use of honey in the 3aivite deva-snana , and the false idea that it is holy. No doubt because of the traditional method of honey-gathering which involves the destruction of the hive by smoking out the bees it has become a proverbial saying that he who eats honey takes on himself the sin of burning seven villages. 4 THE VRATAS Five anu-vratas , three guna-vratas, and four siksa-vratas, making a total of twelve, are listed in the Upasaka-dasah , together with the supplementary, and by its nature non-obligatory, sallekhana - vrata. Except for one text of minor importance the mediaeval dcdryas show no hesitations in the enumeration of the anu-vratas , but the guna-vratas and siksa-vratas to which the Digambaras give the collective designation of silas , vary considerably in their sequence, certain elements, generally the desavakasika-vrata which is by its nature susceptible of being confounded with the dig-vrata, being at times eliminated to allow of the inclusion of sallekhana among the siksa-vratas . The anu-vratas are of course closely parallel to the maha-vratas of an ascetic ; and it is therefore not surprising that some writers have imitated the Dasa-vaikdlika-siitra which counts a sixth maha-vrata — that of a-ratri-bhojana — in the anu- vratas. In fact this sixth anu-vrata is noted by Camundaraya 5 (and at a later date by Sakalalurti) though no list of five aticaras seems ever to have been devised for it. 6 The anu-vratas are: ahimsa , satya, asteya , brahma, and apari- graha. The Dharma-rasayana is alone in substituting for the first of these the prohibition of killing living creatures for sacrifice to 1 Handiqui, p. 263. 2 PASU 70. 3 Y& iii, 41. 4 Sr (A) v. 28. s CS, p. 7. _ 6 Other writers such as Vlranandin in his treatise on the monastic life, the Acara-sara , count a-ratri-bhojana as an additional maha-vrata . S 6 JAINA YOGA the gods (devata-nimittam a-jiva-marana), the ahimsa-vrata itself being relegated to a place among th e guna-vratas. The variations in the guna-vratas and iiksa-vratas can best be shown in tabular form: GUISTA-VRATAS !§vetambaras dig-vrata bhogopabhoga anartha-danda Tattvartha-sutra Camundaraya Amptacandra Somadeva \ dig-vrata desavaka&ka anartha-danda Amitagati Rajamalla Vamadeva Yasunandin Samantabhadra A^adhara Medhavin Sakalakirti Somasena / > dig-vrata anartha-danda bhogopabhoga Karttikeya Kundakunda Devasena Sivakoti Padmanandin 1 1 anartha-danda ; ahimsa bhogopabhoga £ik§a-vratas Svetambaras Tattvartha-sutra Camundaraya Amftacandra samayika \ de^avaka&ka po§adhopavasa dana Amitagati Somadeva Vamadeva Rajamalla Samantabhadra A^adhara ■ samayika / \ po?adhopavasa bhogopabhoga dana Medhavin Sakalakirti Somasena ) desavakadika samayika po?adhopavasa dana Karttikeya Kundakunda samayika ) posadhopavasa dana desavakasika Devasena Sivakoti Padmanandin 1 samayika po?adhopavasa dana sallekhana Yasunandin bhoga upabhoga dana sallekhana Certain points are made clear by a glance at these tables. It has 1 In this and the following tables the author of the Dharma-rasayana is meant. THE VRATAS 57 been remarked that the guna-vratas are additional vows, special cases in fact of the anu-vratas , whilst the siksa- vratas refer to spiritual exercises. The ^vetambaras, even those among them who follow the Tattvartha-sutra in some interpretations, insist on the designations guna-vrata and siksa-vrata and have also, as is logical, retained the sequence which leaves these two types of vows dis- tinct. The Digambaras who follow the Tattvartha-sutra have blurred this distinction by making the desavakasik a-vrata follow the dig-vrata to which it is related in content, the bhogopabhoga- vrata being inserted immediately before the dana-vrata probably because of resemblances in the aticaras. Another Digambara cur- rent stemming from Samantabhadra agrees with the ^vetambara tradition except in the one minor detail that it transposes the samayika- and desavakasika-vratas. (Karttikeya puts the desavaka- tika- after the dana-vrata.) Kundakunda, Devasena, and one or two others suppress the desavakasika-vrata altogether and give sallekhana twelfth place on the list. Yasunandin, who follows the Tattvartha-sutra for the order of the guna-vratas , eliminates the samayika- and posadhopavasa-vratas altogether probably because the same subjects are treated as pratimas and creates in their place a bhoga-vrata and an upabhoga-vrata. It is possible to discern in the treatment of the vratas and their aticaras a number of different traditions which it is of importance to note: 1. The orthodox Svetambara tradition rigidly faithful to the Upasaka-dasah. 2. Another Svetambara tradition that owes its origin to Hari- bhadra, who was considerably influenced by the Tattvartha- sutra. This includes Hemacandra and the seventeenth- century Yasovijaya. 3. The Digambara tradition based on the Tattvartha-sutra. 4. Another Digambara tradition going back to Samantabhadra, who compiled completely new lists of aticaras for some vratas . He is followed by Sakalakirti and Somasena. 5. One significant writer — Somadeva — who alone has not re- spected the tradition of five aticaras for each vrata . The following table will show in detail how the aticaras are treated by them. 1 The designations of the aticaras vary considerably from writer to writer. I have preferred to use, wherever possible, those given in the Upasaka-dasah. 0 737 F AHIMSA-VRATA 58 JAINA YOGA Amitagati nyasapahara guhya-bhasana, mantra-bheda mrsopadesa kuta-lekha-karana paisunya Somadeva mudha-saksi- paisunya mantra-bheda parivada kuta-lekha-karana padokti ASTEYA-VRATA V > •M > THE VRATAS cd J3 •3 3 ft ^ £ ‘C < H < > I ffi <1 o H-l rt 3 NPP 23. 3 T (S) vii. 8 (p. 64). THE AHIjyiSA-VRATA 67 (ii) beating {vadha) ; (iii) mutilating (chavi-cchedd) ; (iv) overloading ( ati-bhararopana ) ; (v) depriving of food and drink ( bhakta-pana-vyavaccheda ). (i) Bandi-ia. This according to Haribhadra 1 applies to the tying up or keeping in captivity of men or beasts. Siddhasena Ganin 2 stresses that this is very often utterly wanton as when ants, or other insects, are tied for amusement. It may, however, be quite legitimate when an unruly child, or slave, or servant has to be cor- rected or when horses, cattle, buffaloes, or elephants are kept for domestic use. The' general view seems to be that such action — and this applies to the other contraventions of this vrata — ranks as an aticara when done in anger. This is stressed by Hemacandra , 3 who defines bandha as The restraining of cattle by ropes and withies or the restraining of one’s children for the sake of correct- ing them’. The tying should be done with consideration (sapeksa), the rope being knotted loosely so that it can be easily slipped in case of fire. Asadhara 4 follows Hemacandra in his explanation but notes also that it is licit to bind a thief or other intruder who may have entered one’s home. Pujyapada and Camundaraya 5 state simply that bandha means fastening with a rope to a block or post in such a way as to restrict freedom of movement from place to place. This and the following aticaras they appear to take as refer- ring only to animals. (ii) Vadha. 6 Haribhadra? explains this as ‘thrashing with whips’. When occasion arises, says Siddhasena Gapin , 8 a pious layman may administer a whipping to a person or animal in his charge with due consideration for age and avoiding any vital spot; pulling the ears or slapping is also permissible. The consensus of later opinion is perhaps best expressed by Devendra 9 when he says that it is merciless flogging that constitutes the aticara. The Digambaras define vadha as The beating of living creatures with rods, whips, or withies’. x Av (H), p. 820a. 2 T (S) vii. 20 . * YJs iii. 90 (p. 547). 4 SDhA iv. 16. 5 CS, p. 5. 6 This aticara has sometimes erroneously been rendered as ‘killing*. 7 Av (H), p. 819 b. 8 T (S) vii. 30. 9 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 84. 68 JAINA YOGA (iii) Chavi-ccheda. 1 For Haribhadra 2 this implies ‘cutting the body with swords and other sharp instruments’. The word chavi is in fact variously interpreted as ‘body’ or ‘skin’. The TatU vartha-bhasya introduces 3 here the idea of purposeless cutting of the bark of trees and Siddhasena Ganin extends this to the wound- ing of ap-kayas by cutting ice or of prthvi-kayas by disturbing the ground, offences which later are usually found under the anartha- danda-vrata. But, as he notes, this aticara applies rather to branding and ear-piercing or to methods of punishment used to intimidate criminals such as cutting off the nose and ears, or fingers and thumbs. Such chavi-ccheda is of course merciless and devoid of consideration (nirapeksa) but it ceases to be an aticara when it is done with due care (sapeksa), for example, in lancing a boil. Hemacandra* mentions as an instance of beneficent chavi- ccheda opening the swollen leg of a person suffering from elephan- tiasis ( pada-vahmka ). For the Digambaras 5 this aticara implies the mutilation of the ears, or nose, or other organs of the body. (iv) Ati-bhArAropana. Haribhadra 6 understands by this the loading on to the back, or shoulders, or head of an animal or human being of an excessive weight of goods such as betel nuts. Siddhasena Ganin 3 comments that a Jaina ought not to make his living by bhafaka-karman or sakata-kantian which are forbidden trades, but, if unable to do otherwise, he should load his oxen or other beasts of burden with a load rather below the maximum that they can bear and unyoke them during the heat of the day, giving them food and water ; whilst human beings should not be expected to carry more than they can take without undue effort. Pujyapada and Camundaraya 5 define this aticara as the loading on oxen or other animals, out of greed, of a burden greater than they can bear. (v) Bhakta-pAna-vyavaccheda. Siddhasena Ganin 3 says that the stinting of food or water to man or beast without cause is always to be avoided. For the moral good of undisciplined children or the physical good of fever patients it is, however, admissible when done with due care. The Digambaras understand this aticara to mean ‘provoking the suffering of hunger or thirst in animals for any reason . 5 _[ In Jaina jurisprudence chavi-ccheda is one of the seven forms of danda- tiitl’y it covers any mutilation inflicted in punishment of a crime. See Arhan- niti, ii. a. 2 Av (H), p. 8196. 3 t (S) vii. 20. 5 CS, p. 5. 6 Av(H), p. 8196. 4 Y & iii- 90 (P- 547)- THE AHI^SA-VRATA 69 ‘How can there be any aticdra of the ahimsa-vratci which is designed to express a renunciation of killing if in fact no killing has taken place?’ 1 This question is often raised by the Svetambara acaryas , only to be answered at once by the explanation that where the intention to hurt or kill arises under the influence of anger and other passions there is bhava-Mmsa. Even if there is no dravya - himsa or physical injury the vrata will have been infringed by the putting away of compassion. In a phrase of Amrtacandra 2 himsa exists wherever raga and dvesa occur even though no creature perishes. A mere thought in an angry man’s mind is himsa : once delivered to the empire of his passions he destroys himself even if he destroys no other living being. Conversely where a person of pure life, for example, a sadhu practising irya-samiti , inadver- tently extinguishes the life of a jiva he does not bind on himself further karma. Aticaras of the layman’s ahimsd-wata therefore occur when the vow is broken in spirit {antar-vrttya) through anger but kept in the letter ( bahir-vrttya ), for example, when an animal is beaten mercilessly but recovers owing to its natural strength. 3 Many writers are preoccupied by the calculation of the number of ways in which the vrata can be broken. Thus for AmitagatH a bhang a may be krta, karita , or anumata , may be committed in speech, in body, or in mind, may refer to the stages of samrambha , samarambha , or arambha and may belong to any one of the four kasayas : krodha , mana, maya , or lobha : from this computation, which is that of the Tattvartha-sutra, he derives a total of 108 forms of himsa. Devagupta 5 reckons 243 bhang as of the ahimsa-vrata : krta , karita , or anumata , in speech, in body, or in mind, com- mitted against the nine categories of jivas in past, present, or future time. Hemacandra 6 prefers a more complex calculation: each offence may be committed in speech, in body, in mind, in speech and body together, in speech and mind together, in mind and body together, or in speech, body, and mind together, and each may be krta , karita , anumata , krta-karita, krtanumata , karitanumata , or krta-kdritanumata ; and the variants which result may occur in past, present, or future time, giving a possible total of 147 bhahgas. It seems idle to follow the acaryas into the network of these theoretical speculations, and though they are applied to many injunctions of 1 UD i. 45 (p. 7). 2 PASU 41-48. =» £rDK, pt. ii, p. 84. 4 $r (A) vi. 12-13. 5 NPP 21. 0 Y& ii. 18 (p. 192). 7 o JAINA YOGA the Jaina creed, and recur with increasing frequency in the later texts in tabulated form, no further allusion will be made to them in the present study. The content of the ahimsa-vrata is much wider than the aticaras indicate, though many subjects which are treated under this head by early writers are later held to fall within the province of the anartha-danda-vrata and the bhogopabhoga-vrata. The Sravaka- prajhapti 1 records that the practice of ahimsa implies the straining of water through a cloth and the use of grain that is free from weevils. Siddhasena Ganin 2 mentions the ban on the consumption of meat, alcohol, and honey as forming part of the ahimsa-vrata. Somadeva , 3 too, includes under it the obligation to avoid un- strained water, abhaksyas , ananta-kayas, and ratri-bhojana. A^ad- hara , 4 who notes that the lay estate cannot exist without activity (( arambha ) or activity without killing, deals especially under the ahimsa-vrata with eating by night and meat-eating. It is the eating of meat and the sacrifice of animals that provoke Hemacandra 5 to an attack on the himsa-sastra as he calls the Mami- smrti. It is, he says, a hideous distortion of reality to pretend that animals have come into existence to be offered to the divinities for the prosperity of the world and that the jivas inhabiting them will be reborn as divine beings. Those who perform such sacrifices will go to the lowest hell, and even a wretched atheist, a carvaka , will have a better destiny than the hypocrites who preach a dharma of cruelty. That men abandon the dharma of compassion for this repellent creed is evidence of the evil of the age. If sacrificial victims really went to an abode of bliss why should not one kill one’s parents in the sacrifice ? How can figures like Siva, Skandha, Yisnu, or Yama, who are represented with terrible weapons, be adored as divinities? Like many other Jaina writers, Hemacandra quotes the famous verse : same jiva vi icchanti jivium na marijjium tamha pani-vaham ghoram niggantha vajjayanti nam 6 ‘Killing horrifies because all beings wish to live and not to be slain.’ It would here be well to stress that ahimsa is not something nega- tive; it is another aspect of daya — compassion — in Iiemacandra’s 1 SrPr 259* s T (S) vii. 8. 3 Handiqui, p. 264. 4 SDhAiv. 12. s Y§ ii. 33-49. 6 Dasa-mikalika-sfttra, gatha, 219. THE AHIlVtSA-VRATA 71 words ‘the beneficent mother of all beings 1 , ‘the elixir for those who wander in suffering through the ocean of reincarnation’. This positive ahimsa is expressed in the form of karuna-dana or abhaya - dana, the giving of protection to all living creatures. For Somadeva, 1 who emphasizes this positive aspect, ahimsa as in the Tattvartha-siitra 2 is compounded of maitri — the non-infliction of suffering, pramoda — affection combined with respect for the virtuous, karunya — charity to help the needy, and madhyasthya — a state of equanimity without attraction or repulsion in regard to those who are devoid of virtues. Evil, he says, cannot dwell in a man crowned with the halo of compassion for this quality is more efficacious than the practice of all ceremonies. THE SATYA-VRATA The term satya has been given such a wide connotation here that it is scarcely possible to render it merely as ‘truth’. Its speci- fically Jaina interpretation was already apparent to Pujyapada as his commentary on the Tattvartha-sutra : 3 shows. In fact the ampli- tude of this vrata has been concisely expressed by Vasunandin* as the abstention from untruth spoken out of passion or hate, and from truth, too if it provokes the destruction of a living being. From the earliest times certain divisions or delimitations of satya have been established in the texts. The most primitive (dating from the older Avasyaka literature) takes the following form (based on the gifts most commonly mentioned) : (i) untruth relating to a girl (kanyalika), e.g. saying that a girl is or is not a virgin ; (ii) untruth relating to a cow (gav-alika), e.g. saying that a cow gives much milk or little milk; (iii) untruth relating to land ( bhumy-alika ), e.g. saying that a piece of land belongs to oneself or belongs to another person ; (iv) untruth told for the sake of making away with a pledge {nyasa-harana), e.g. falsely denying that gold or other valuables have been entrusted to one; (v) bearing false witness (kuta-saksya). 1 Handiqui, p. 264. 2 T (P) vii. 11, 4 (V) 209. 3 Ibid. 14. 72 JAINA YOGA The above classification is that of the Pancasaka 1 but it is given without perceptible variation in all Svetambara works, from the §ravaka-praj nap ti onwards, that treat of the vratas. Asadhara 1 2 borrows it from Hemacandra but is not followed by any other Digambara writer except Medhavin, who mentions only the first three categories. It should be noted that in all cases these three forms of asatya are interpreted as upalaksanas or symbolic examples so that they cover any false statements made in reference to human beings (kanyalika), animals ( gav-alika ), or inanimate objects {bhumy- alika ). Another classification which bears the stamp of the logicians divides asatya into the following categories : 3 (i) denial of what is (bhuta-nihnava or sad-alapana) r e.g. ‘there is no atman' ; ‘there is no j papa’ ; ‘there is no panyd ; or ‘Deva- datta is not here’ (when in fact he is' present) ; (ii) assertion of what is not (asad-udbhavana or abhutodbhavana), e.g. ‘the atman is immanent’ (sarvagata), or ‘the atman is of the size of a grain of millet or rice’ or ‘the pot is there’ (when in fact it is not there) ; (iii) representation of something in a form other than its real form (arthantara or viparita), e.g. describing a cow as a horse or saying, as do the Buddhists, that the atman is non- eternal or, as do the Sankhyas, that it is eternal ; (iv) reprehensible speech (nindya) — in Hemacandra’s termino- logy garhita — which is again subdivided into : (a) speech that is tactlessly hurtful ( apriya ) as, for example, in alluding to a person’s physical deformity. Nothing should be said to cause embarrassment, anxiety, or unhappiness to others; (b) speech that is insulting (garhya) — in Hemacandra akrosa- rupa — or inspired by malice or mockery, e.g. calling someone a bastard ; 4 (c) speech in which encouragement to harmful actions is given (savadya). This would include not only advice to steal or to kill but even an injunction such as ‘plough the fields’. ~ ° 1 P (£rDh) ii. 2 SDhA iv. 39. 3 Sr (A) vi. 49-54; PASU 91-98. 4 Y 5 ii. 57; textually yatha are bandhdkineya ity adi. THE SATYA-VRATA 73 The foregoing classification, is given not only by the Digambaras Amitagati and Amrtacandra but also in the Yoga-sdstra where the treatment goes back directly to Siddhasena’s commentary on the Tattvdrtha-siitra 1 and indeed to the Svetambara Bhasya. The three types of nindya speech (styled garhita in the Bhasya) are, in corre- sponding order, paisunya-yukta , parusya-ynkta , and himsd-yukta. Since in general it would seem that in numerical presentations the tetrads are older than the pentads, the fivefold classification set out in the Nava-pada-prakarana 1 2 and repeated by Ya^odeva 3 in his commentary on the Pancasaka is probably a later development. On the authority of a Prakrit verse quoted this is given as : (i) abhil- todbhavana , (ii) bhuta-nihnava , (iii) viparita , (i v)garhya, (v) savadya. A^adhara 4 too has five categories but he has arrived at them by suppressing the savadya class, doubtless from a feeling that it was unnecessary because identical with the papopadesa division of anarthadanda. With that exception he has faithfully followed Hemacandra’s enumeration. Somadeva 5 gives another fourfold division of satya and asatya: (i) satya-satya — what is wholly true, the exact reproduction of facts ; (ii) asatya-satya — a statement part true, part false in which the falsehood predominates, e.g. weave the cloth, (where it would be more accurate to say weave the yarn) ; (iii) satyasatya — again a statement part true, part false, but with truth predominating, e.g. promising to give something within a fortnight and giving it only after a month or a year ; (iv) asatydsatya — what is wholly false, e.g. promising to give something which it is not within one’s power to give. Asadhara 6 incorporates this rather casuistic analysis into his sravakacara but no other writer appears to have noted it. In con- formity with the usage of the world the first three are permissible but the fourth is always to be avoided. For the five aticaras the older Svetambara authorities maintain unchanged the list of the Upasaka-dasah: (i) sudden calumniating (sahasdbhyakhydna)\ (ii) secret calumniating (raho’bhyakhydna) ; 1 T (S) vii. 9. 3 NPP 30. 3 P (Y) n. 4 SDhA iv. 44. 5 Handiqui, p. 265 . 6 SDhA iv. 40-43. 0 737 G 74 JAINA YOGA (iii) divulging the confidences of one’s wife (sva-ddra-mantra- bhedd ) ; (iv) spreading of false information (mrsopadesa ) ; (v) false statements expressed in writing (kuta- lekha-karana ) . However, even here, there are some divergencies in interpreta- tion. The oldest Digambara list, that of the Tattvartha-sutrap- varies sva-dara-mantra-bheda to sakara-mantra-bheda (at its origin probably no more, than a textual corruption), omits sahasabhya - khyana , and from the primitive categories of asatya borrows nyasapahara , assigning to it the vacant space in the aticara pentad. This pattern is followed by Amrtacandra, 2 Camundaraya, and Asadhara and, one may add, by Amitagati 3 though there is some blurring of the distinction between the second and third infrac- tions called by him ‘revealing of secret actions’ {prakasana. guhya- vicestitdndm) and ‘divulging the confidences of others’ ( para - mantra-bheda). Haribhadra, in the Dharma-bindu ,4 has kept the original Svetambara version except for the replacement of sahasd- bhyahhyana by nyasapahara . Hemacandra 5 on the contrary has preferred to retain sahasdbhydkhyana ; he recognizes raho } bhya- khyana as a variant reading for this and fills its place in the list by guhya-bhdsana whilst for sva-dara-mantra-bheda he gives visvasta - inantra-bheda. In other words, for the second and third aticaras , he is in exact agreement with Amitagati. Samantabhadra 6 follows the Tdttvdrtha-siitra but for sakara-mantra-bheda and mrsopadeia he has paUunya and parivada (for his commentator Prabhacandra the use of these terms does not change the meaning). For this anu-vrata as for others, Somadeva’s 7 list of aticaras is the most aber- rant: mudha-saksi-padokti (false witness), mantra-bheda (revealing of confidences), paisunya , parivada , and kuta-lekhana. It is clear therefore that for him paisunya cannot have the sense that Pra- bhacandra gives to it or it would be tautological. It would probably be more correct to give to it its everyday meaning of ‘calumny’ and to parivada that of ‘reproach’. Yet it must be pointed out in support of Prabhacandra’s explanation that Amitagati in the Subhasita - ratna-samdoha uses the term paisunya to describe what in his Sravakacara he calls prakasana gnhya-vicestitmidm and that Si- ddhasena Ganin 8 equates paisunya with what is apriya . ^ T (P) vii. 2 5. * p ASU l84 . 3 g r (A) vii. 4. 4 DhB iii. 27. s yjg iii. 91. 6 RK iii. 10. 7 Handiqui, p. 265. 8 T (S) vii. 9 (p. 74). THE SATYA-VRATA 75 The interpretation of these various aticaras even when they bear the same designation shows considerable variations : (i) Sahasabhyakhyana. Haribhadra , 1 quoting the Curni, defines this as imputing to someone without due reflection a non-existent fault, such as saying, ‘You are a thief, you are an adulterer’. There is a danger that the victim might be killed or otherwise punished for this if the calumny were overheard by an ill-intentioned person. According to a Prakrit verse 2 quoted anony- mously by Abhayadeva and again by Hemacandra this transgres- sion is a bhanga when spoken intentionally in the knowledge that it is untrue and an aticara in other circumstances. (ii) Raho’bhyakhyana. In the traditional Svetambara inter- pretation, that of the Avasyaka Curni and Haribhadra , 3 the example cited for this aticara is to say: ‘They are discussing an act directed against the king’ ; the consequences for the persons thus calumniated are obvious. But already Siddhasena Ganin 4 had given an explanation drawn from the sva-dara-mantra-bheda aticara . In his view this offence is committed if, for example, an older woman is told that her husband is in love with a young girl or if a younger woman is given to understand that her husband is in- fatuated with a more mature rival, or if a man is informed that his wife denigrates him, saying that he is a lecherous brute ( kama - gardabha). Such allegations made by way of gibes constitute aticaras, but if there is a conscious evil intent (abhinivesa) under- lying them they are bhahgas. (iii) Sva-dAra-mantra-bheda. Haribhadra 3 defines this as the divulging to others of what has been said by one’s wife in confidence under special circumstances. His explanation is fol- lowed by successive ^vetambara authorities. Yasodeva 6 takes the word data as an upalaksana to include ‘friends’ and Hema- candra 7 goes further, designating this aticara as visvasta-mantra - bheda. The gravity of this transgression, as is pointed out from the Avasyaka Curni onwards, lies in the fact that it might bring about the death of the wife (or friend) through shame. Because of this evil potentiality there is in it an element of bhanga and at the same time, if it is true, an element of abhahga so that it can properly * Av (H), p. 821 b> 4 T (S) vii. 21 (p. 105). 6 P (Y) n (p. 60). P(grDh)i2. 3 Av (H), p. 821&. 5 Av (H), p. 8ziA 7 Yf§ iii. 91. 76 JAINA YOGA be classed as an aticara. Siddhasena Suri 1 notes that in this offence a fact which ought not to be revealed is divulged by a person concerned and not, as in the preceding one, by a third party. (iv) M#sopade6a. This is explained by Siddhasena Ganin 2 as ‘words that may cause suffering to others’ such as ‘Let the camels and donkeys be loaded’ or ‘Let the slaves be beaten’. On the basis of the JBhasya he gives also as an alternative interpretation ‘showing someone how to get the better of someone else in a dispute’. Both ideas are adopted by Hemacandra 3 but the second is preferred by the other Svetambara texts from the Amsyaka Curni onwards. From ‘instruction in methods of deceit’ this aticara is extended to cover the encouragement of the study of texts mainly concerned with falsehood. Devendra , 4 however, narrows it down to ‘teaching the use of unknown mantras and herbs’. The conventional Digambara view, exemplified by Pujyapada and Camundaraya , 5 understands by this aticara the giving of advice which would be prejudicial to the attainment of moksa or to rebirth in the deva-loka. Asadhara 6 offers in addition to this the choice of the first two explanations favoured by Hemacandra. If the commentator Pra- bhacandra is to be trusted the parimda of the Ratna-karanda 7 is to be understood as mrtopadeia . (v) Kuta-lekha-karana. Haribhadra , 8 and in general the lovetambara writers, understand by this the counterfeiting of another person’s seal, or stamp, or the use of such a seal with a false text, but Siddhasena Ganin 9 more specifically relates it to the false writing of symbols on birch bark. The Digambara definition is ‘alleging in writing with intent to deceive that what was not in fact said or done by someone was said or done by him ’. 10 Aiadhara 11 notes both the Svetambara and Digambara versions. Abhayadeva , 12 Hemacandra, and others say that this offence, though a flagrant breach of truth, is an aticara and not a bhanga because the vrata in its literal sense applies to the speaking, and not to the writing, of asatya. Nyasapahara. The Tattvartha-bhasya 13 defines this as ‘the taking of a pledge deposited by another person and forgotten’. 1 PrSU, p. 72. 2 T (S) vii. 21 (p. 104). 3 Y£ iii. 91. 4 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 87. * CS, p. 5- 6 SDhA iv. 45. 7 RK iii. 10. 8 Av (H), p. 8216. 9 T (S) vii. ai (p. 105). 10 CS, p. 5. 11 SDhA iv. 45. ** P (SrDh) 12. 13 T (S) vii. 21 (p. 105). THE SATYA-VRATA 77 Siddhasena Ganin expands this by the following example. Suppose someone has deposited in safe custody a sum of five hundred coins but when he comes to collect it, cannot remember whether the figure was five hundred or four hundred. If the holder of the money were to take advantage of that uncertainty to give back only four hundred coins he would be guilty of nyasapahara. The same view is taken by Digambara writers. Sakara-mantra-bheda. According to the traditional Dig- ambara interpretation 1 this is the divulging from jealousy or other motives of the secret intention of another person as divined by watching his gestures or facial expression’. The sixteenth- century commentator Prabhacandra applies this definition to the aticara , which Samantabhadra calls paisunya. Siddhasena, in his com- mentary on the Tattvartha-sutra , 2 had explained paisunya as ‘breaking up a friendship between two people by revealing what one has learned by studying gestures and expression’, and guhya- bhasana as ‘divulging affairs of state’. In the Bhasya both are associated under the head of sakara-mantra-bheda: Hemacandra in turn groups them as alternative explanations of the guhya-bhasana aticara. In recording the aticaras of sthuldsatya the £vetambara texts sometimes note a definition of this, more precise than the general notion that it applies to the layman and not to the ascetic. Thus the Avasyaka Curni 3 defines it as ‘speech by which great suffering or great hurt is caused to another person or to oneself’, whilst suksmasatya is ‘inaccurate speech used in play or in jest’ ; for Hari- bhadra 4 sthulasatya must be concerned with significant questions, suksmasatya implying what is trivial. Positive definitions of satya are sometimes given. The Sravaka- prajnapti , 5 for instance, enjoins that the aim of speech should be the intelligent pursuit of what is best for both worlds and the avoidance of what may cause hurt to others or to oneself or both to others and to oneself. Somadeva 6 considers that in speaking one should aim at measure rather than exaggeration, esteem rather than denigration, and distinction not vulgarity of expression. Amitagati 7 maintains that all such talk as is reprehensible among 1 cs > P* 5- , 2 T (S) vii. 2i (p. 106). A Volksetymologie is given: pritirn sunayatlti ptsunas tadbhavah paisunyam. This will be more easily understood if it is put back into a Prakrit form: ptim sunei tti pisuno tab-bhavo pesunnam. 3 Av Cu, p. 285. 4 Av(H)82o6. 5 SrPr264. 6 Handiqui, p. 266. 7 &r(A)vi. 45. 7 8 JAINA YOGA mlecchas , dishonourable to those who seek the religious life, and condemned by the doctors of the church is to be avoided; even truth when it results in suffering, fear, or harmful activity (arambha). Karttikeya 1 defines the satya-vrata as the avoidance of harmful, harsh, cruel, or secret speech and the use of balanced language that gives satisfaction to all living creatures and expresses the sacred truths. The connexion of asatya with hima has been brought out in the discussion of the individual aticaras. Amirtacandra 2 emphasizes that even where this is not apparent all asatya contains an element of careless activity ( pramatta-yoga ) which is at the root of himsa. However, for this very same reason a sermon on the performance of religious duties even though it seems to come under the head of unpleasing ( apriya ) speech is not asatya . The consequences which may ensue from speaking asatya are dwelt on by Hemacandra . 3 A liar may have his tongue and an ear cut off, may be beaten and imprisoned, treated with contumely, and deprived of his possessions. In another incarnation he may be afflicted with dumbness, speech defects, and foetid breath. Wilful calumny in particular is the root of endless miseries. On the other hand, one who always speaks the truth will, so popular belief avers, never be bitten by a serpent. In the consideration of asatya the abhyakhyana infraction has a special importance. It also forms a separate entry in the catalogue of the eighteen papa-sthanas, and figures among the asatanas . THE ASTEYA-VRATA The Svetambara writers generally preface any discussion of stealing (steya or caurya or more generally adattadana , ‘the taking of what has not been given’) by fourfold classification of adatta\* (i) what is not granted by its owner (svamy-adatta), e.g. gold; (ii) what is not granted by a living creature ( jivadatta ), e.g. animal products not given by the slaughtered animal or even a fruit (which has not been given by th ejiva inhabiting it); 1 KA 333-4* 2 PASU 99-zoo. 3 ygii. 53-64. 4 NPP 39* THE ASTEYA-VRATA 79 (iii) what is not granted by the Tirthankar a (Tirthankaradatta), e.g. food specially cooked by the householder for the monks (adha-karman) which, is illicit ; (iv) what is not given to the monks (gurv-adatta), e.g. food even though devoid of impurity which is enjoyed without inviting the gurus. Devagupta, Yasodeva, Abhayadeva, Hemacandra, Siddhasena Suri, and Ratna^ekhara, listing the adattas , all cite as authority a verse from the tika of the Prcisna-vyakarana: sdmi-jwadattain Titthayarenam tattheva ya guruhim eyarn adatta-saruvam paruviyam dgama-dharehim In fact, of course, it is only the first adatta with which the asteya- vrata is concerned. Objects which can be stolen are divided in two ways; 1 either as: (i) animate (sacitta) such as salt, horses; (ii) inanimate (acitta) such as gold, silver; (iii) partly animate, partly inanimate (ubhaya ) ; or as: (i) two-footed (dvi-pada ) ; (ii) four-footed ( catus-pada ); (iii) without feet ( apada ). Such categories, of which other similar specimens will be found under the aparigraha-vrata , have no practical importance in the dis- cussion of theft. However, Siddhasena 2 notes these divisions and carefully explains the Bhasya's definition of steya, ‘the taking with intent to steal of objects — even of such things as grass — which are in the possession of others or not given by others’, in such a way as to include ‘what is reprehended by the scriptures’, in effect the tirthankaradatta noted above. The aticaras of this vow are given alike by Svetambaras and Digambaras : (i) receiving stolen goods (stenahrtddana) ; (ii) suborning of thieves (taskara-prayoga) ; (iii) transgressing the limits of a hostile state {viruddha- rajydtikrama). 1 &rPr 365; Av (H), p. 8326. z T (S) vii. 10 (p. 76). 8o JAINA YOGA (iv) using false weights and measures (kiita-tula-kuta-mana ) ; (v) substitution of inferior commodities ( tat-pratirupaka - vyavahara). It is only Somadeva’s 1 list which shows certain divergencies: stena-karman may perhaps be interpreted as equivalent to stena - prayoga , and mgrahe samgraho ’ rthasya (accumulation of wealth in war-time) has the merit of being less ambiguous than viruddha - rajyatikrama. The last item, tat-pratirupaka-vyavahara } has been completely omitted but it is possible that the fourth is intended to be split up into two: ‘over-weighing’ and ‘under-weighing’, according to whether buying or selling is involved. The Digam- baras in general prefer the wording hinadhika-manonmana to de- scribe this aticara . (i) Stenahrtadana. Siddhasena , 2 following the Tattmrtha- bhasya , explains this as ‘obtaining goods which are the proceeds of a robbery for nothing or at a low price’. For Haribhadra 3 it is ‘acquiring cheaply through greed stolen commodities such as saffron from a foreign country’. This explanation is repeated by Devagupta, Abhayadeva, and Yasodeva. Hemacandra prefers to follow Siddhasena Gan in. In the literal terms of the vrata this offence is not a bhanga ; on the other hand since the thievish intent is present it is a bhanga , so that by definition it can be classed as an aticara . 4 Siddhasena Suri takes an identical view. Amongst the Digambaras Pujyapada 5 and Camundaraya consider this offence to mean ‘obtaining something stolen from a thief without having employed or prompted him’, but A^adhara prefers to adopt Hemacandra’s definition. (ii) Stena- prayoga. Siddhasena Ganin 6 explains this as ‘providing thieves with money to ply their trade’ and notes that it is wrong to sell implements of burglary. For Haribhadra 7 it means approving or encouraging thieves by saying: ‘You steal this.’ Abhayadeva and Yasodeva are of the same opinion. Hemacandra and Siddhasena Suri leave the choice open between Siddhasena Ganin and Haribhadra. Hemacandra, quoting Abhayadeva, pictures the offender as addressing the thieves in these terms: ‘Why do you stand idle ? If you have no food I will give you to eat. If you find no buyer for your wares I will take them.’ Such action is a 1 Handiqui, p. 265. 3 T(S) vii. 22 (p. 107). 3 Av(H), p, 823a. * YfS iii. 9a. 5 T (P) vii. 27. 6 T (S) vii. 22 (p. 107), 7 Av (H), p. 823a. THE ASTEYA-VRATA bhangaoi the vow not to cause theft to be carried out but at the same time not a bhanga because the instigator does not himself commit theft , 1 In the Digambara view as exemplified by Pujyapada 2 and Camundaraya this aticara amounts to the direct or indirect in- stigation of theft or the expression of approval for it. Once again Asadhara 3 prefers to follow Hemacandra even to the extent of giving the elaborate details which would seem to belong to a stena- sastra. (iii) Viruddha-rajyatikrama. Siddhasena , 4 amplifying the explanation of the Tattvartha-bhasya, renders this as ‘the acquisi- tion of property in a country which is engaged in hostilities with one’s own country since even grass or wood acquired under such circumstances must be regarded as stolen’. For Haribhadra 5 the offence lies merely in the crossing of such a forbidden frontier since the ruler’s command is thereby disobeyed. That this would be for the purpose of contraband is implied in Abhayadeva’s 6 reference to thievish intent ( caurya-buddhi ). Hemacandra 7 and Siddhasena Suri are more explicit: they regard the transgression of the for- bidden frontier as a form of svamy-adatta which would be of the nature of a bhanga , and at the same time not a bhanga because the purpose is to carry out a commercial transaction. Yasodeva 8 even extends the aticara to cover all trade in one’s own country if for- bidden by the ruler. The Digambaras Pujyapada and Camunda- raya 9 have a noticeably different interpretation: ‘the obtaining of merchandise by any means other than licit’. Samantabhadra’s 10 vilopa is given the same definition by Prabhacandra, who then equates it with viruddha-rajyatikrama for, as he explains, goods of great value can be acquired with a small outlay under such cir- cumstances. (iv) Kuta-tula-icuta-mana. Siddhasena , 11 expanding the interpretation of the Tattvartha-bhasya , explains this as the use of methods which are fraudulent inasmuch as any deviation from the norm is calculated in one’s own favour when buying or selling, or fixing rates of interest. Thus a tenfold or elevenfold rate of interest, which is sometimes practised out of greed, is inequitable ( anydyya ) and illicit. For Haribhadra 12 the aticara consists in giving short 1 Y§ iii. 93. 2 T (P) vii. 27. _ 3 SDhA iv. 47. 4 T (S) vii. 22 (p. 107). 5 Av (H), p. 823a. 6 P (SrDh) 14. 7 YS iii. 92. 8 P 00 14- 9 CS, p. 6. 10 RK iii. 12. 11 T (S) vii. 22 (p. 107). 12 Av (H), p. 823a. 8a JAINA YOGA measure when selling, and taking an excess when buying. Abhaya- deva, YaSodeva, and Hemacandra accept the same view. Devendra , 1 like Siddhasena Ganin, condemns under this head the levying of exorbitant rates of interest. The Digambara definition is extremely precise : ‘fraudulent trading in which more is taken for oneself and less given to others when weighing and measuring ’. 2 (v) Tat-pratirupaka-vyavahara. Siddhasena , 3 * following the Tattvartha-bhasya, understands this as the counterfeiting of gold, silver, brass, copper, oil, ghee, milk, or curds with materials that resemble them in colour, weight, and other properties, as well as the use of fraudulent devices in trading. As an example of these, it is mentioned that when cattle are stolen the shape of their horns can be changed at will if these are fomented with stewed kalihgi fruits ; otherwise they would be too easily recognizable to be kept or sold. According to Haribhadra* this aticara is no more than the adulteration of commodities such as mixing palanji with rice, or fat with ghee. Other Svetambara authorities take the same view. Siddhasena Suri s (who gives to this aticara the name of sadrsa-yuti) and Hemacandra 6 mention amongst other substances mixed with, or substituted for, more valuable ones : khadira resin for asafoetida, and urine for oil. Hemacandra considers that this aticara may refer to methods of vyaji-karana such as deforming the horns of cattle. For the Digambaras 7 it implies ‘fraudulent trading in factitious gold and similar commodities, or more specifically in a later text the Pra£mttara-fravakacara s ‘coining false money’; but as on other points here again A^adhara’s views belong with the &vetam- baras. Like the preceding aticara this offence can be held to be a bhanga because people are deprived of their property by false pretences but at the same time not a bhanga because what is in- volved is in fact just a commercial transaction . 9 The transgressions of the asteya-vrata discussed above apply, it is clear, more particularly to members of the trading class. But Hemacandra , 9 and with him Asadhara , 10 raise the point that they may also be committed by the king’s ministers and other officials. Thus a vassal ruler (samanta) who assists an enemy of the king to whom he owes allegiance is guilty of viruddha-rajyatikrama . 1 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 91. 3 CS, p. 6. 3 T (S) vii. 23 (p. 108). 4 Av (H), p. 833a. s PSU 373. 6 YS iii, 92. 7 CS, p. 6. 8 PrabiQttara-sravakacdra> xiv. 37. 9 Y$ iii. 92. ™ SDhA iv. 50. THE ASTEYA-VRATA 83 Officials of the royal treasury are also liable to commit the fourth and fifth aticaras in the course of their duties. Several writers (Abhayadeva, Yasodeva, Hemacandra) quote a verse from the Prasna-vyakarana-tika : coro coravago manti bheya-nnu kanaga-kkayi anna-do thana-do ceva coro satta-viho mao 1 According to this popular dictum the category of thief includes the robber, the receiver, the king’s minister, the retail trader, the purveyor of food, and the purveyor of office. Another classification of thieves which would appear to have been taken from a stena - iastra is too lengthy to be recorded here. A distinction of sthula-steya and siiksma-steya is made in the early &vetambara texts. For Haribhadra, 2 following the Avasyaka Curni , the latter implies appropriating trivial objects like rubble from the roadside without asking permission. For the Digambaras the classical definition of theft is contained in the verse of the Ratna-karanda : 3 * nihitam va patitam va su-vismrtam vd parasvam avisrstam na harati yan na ca datte tad-akria-caurydd uparamanam ‘not taking the property of others whether pledged or dropped or forgotten unless it has been given’. Camundaraya,* taking over this definition, adds ‘or if abandoned owing to fear of princes or from some other cause’. Vasunandin 5 and the 3vetambara Hemacandra 6 have almost identical verses. Somadeva 7 insists that nothing that belongs to others may be appropriated ‘whether in a house or on the highway or on water or in the woods or in the hills’ ; and his words are echoed by Amitagati: 8 not even a blade of grass is to be taken if it belongs to someone else. The connexion of theft with himsa is brought out by Amitagati : 9 ‘whoever takes the possessions of a man takes away his life since they represent his external vital force giving him consolation.’ Through the suffering he causes to others the thief is to be classed with the oil-presser, the hunter, the butcher, the cat, and the tiger. From another angle it is contended that hima is a necessary con- comitant of theft since it occurs through pramatta-yoga. 10 1 P (Y) 14 (p. 67). 2 Ay (H), p. 8 zib. 3 RK iii. 11. ♦ CS, p. 6. s gr (V) an. 6 Y£ ii. 66 . 7 Handiqui, p. 265. 8 £>r (A) vi. 60. 9 Ibid, 61-63, 10 PASU 104. 84 JAINA YOGA There are reminiscences of the aticaras in some Digambara works which do not enumerate them: the Dvadasanuprekm, 1 for example, describes the asteya-vrata in these terms: not buying a valuable article at a low price, being contented with a small profit, not appropriating something that has been forgotten, and not taking the property of others through anger or greed. A^adhara 2 extends the scope of the asteya-vrata in various ways. Thus when any doubt arises as to whether or not an object belongs to oneself to take it would be to break the vow. Nothing that has not been given is to be appropriated with the exception of property from the succession of a dead relative and of such things as the water of a river or the grass of a meadow which are common prop- erty. For example, if a buried hoard is found it must be left alone since, as treasure trove, it is without an owner but belongs to the ruler of the state. A late text, the fifteenth-century Prasnottara - srdmkacara , 3 contains a provision that if a man is unable to leave alone money or other valuables which have been dropped on the ground he should devote them to the performance of pilja in the Jaina temple. It should be remembered that theft is also one of the seven vyasanas and is treated in many Digambara works under that head. THE BRAHMA-VRATA Various preliminary classifications, all summarized in the Nava- pada-prakarana, are current. Thus mention is made of twenty-four, ten, and eight divisions of kama all ascribed by Devagupta* to the Dharmartha-kamadhyayana of the Dasavaikalika-sutra ; Brahma (abstinence from sexual intercourse) is of eighteen kinds, nine relating to celestial females ( vaikriya ) and nine to terrestrial females {audarika). Maithuna (copulation) is twofold, relating to the vaikriya and audarika classes and the latter is again divided up into animal and human categories. Under this last head are distin- guished: sva-dara (one’s own wife or concubine), para-dara (any woman under the authority of another man), and vesya{ a prostitute who is considered to have no owner). 1 KA 335. 2 sohA iv. 46—49. 3 Prasnottara-sravakacara , xiv. 6. 4 NPP 48-30. THE BRAHMA-VRATA 85 Further the standpoint from which the whole subject is treated is only understandable on the basis of three sexes (an assumption common to ancient Hinduism and Buddhism) expressed in Jainism in the theory of the three sex urges (mda) — pum, stri, napumsaka. 1 The triad of male, female, and androgyne seems to conserve memories of an earlier stage of society in which the hermaphrodite was accorded a role of special importance . 2 Mirrored in the gram- matical categories of the language it offered a neat response to the desire for schematization. The brahma-wata differs from all the other vows in its double formulation : positive in the sense of ‘contentment with one’s own wife’ (sva-dara-santosd) and negative as ‘avoidance of the wives of others’ ( a-para-dara~gamana ). In the former case the translation ‘wife’ rather than ‘wives’ or ‘women’ has been chosen deliberately for reasons that will be apparent later, though in fact the issue of monogamy or polygamy continues to be debated in the texts, de- spite a social context in which polygamy is the natural prerogative of the well-to-do. Some authorities hold that of the five aticaras listed below only the last three can be said to transgress this vow in its negative formulation. The traditional designations of these aticaras are : (i) intercourse with a woman temporarily taken to wife (itvara-parigrhita-gamana ) ; (ii) intercourse with an unmarried woman ( a-parigrhita - gamana ) ; (iii) love-play (ananga-krida) ; (iv) match-making (para-vivaha-karana) ; (v) excessive predilection for the pleasures of the senses ( kama-bhoga-twrabhilasa ) . For the third and fourth aticaras the designations may be said to be invariable and the interpretation substantially the same. Under varying labels two quite separate views on the meaning of the fifth are apparent. Most of the earlier Svetambaras — and it would 1 The translation ‘androgyne’ rather than ‘neuter’ seems to respond best to the usage of the Jaina texts. 2 Cf. Jean Przylusld, La Grande Deesse (Paris, 1950), p. 182: Entrela Grande Mere et le dieu suprime , pere de tons les fores, on trouve une divinite in term ^dt air e androgyne. Or leprfore est semhlable an dieu. On ne doit done pas fore surpris de ren- contrer a c 6 te de la Vdnus hermaphrodite . . . des pr fores bissexues on supposes tels. . . , Les devins itaient considdrds comine des androgynes. II est possible qu'en theorie tout devin dut fore androgyne. . . , 86 JAINA YOGA seem from the wording of the Upasaka-dasah itself that their interpretation is nearer to the intention of the canon — hold that it refers to the pleasures that can be obtained from the eye and ear and the senses of taste, smell, and touch. This is the view offered by Abhayadeva , 1 Devagupta, and Yasodeva; anditis favoured as an alternative by Municandra. Haribhadra 2 had used it in combina- tion with the second interpretation (favoured by the later Svetam- baras and all Digambaras) that the aticara merely refers to excessive venery. It is in the treatment of the first and second aticaras that most uncertainty, sometimes provoked by textual variants, pre- vails. Samantabhadra 3 and Aiadhara are noteworthy as the exponents of an aberrant tradition that fuses these two trans- gressions into one and inserts in the missing space of the table a totally novel item: vitatva (obscene language). Naturally the first and second aticaras cannot apply to women. To rob a co-wife of a night with the husband that should properly be hers, to make advances to her husband when he has taken a vow of brahmacarya , or — though this would more properly be con- sidered a bhanga — to take a lover are named as offences that may be substituted for them. The distinction of sva-dara-santo§a and para-dara-virati is of course only valid for men . 4 Except for A^ad- hara 5 no Digambara writer makes reference to aticaras committed by women. Siddhasena Ganin , 6 in a definition that imposes a harsh precision on ideas in which animistic concepts are fused, classifies maithuna as animate ( sa-cetana ) and inanimate ( acetana ) : Sa-cetana\ (i) of a man, with a female (celestial, human, or animal) ; (ii) of a man, with another man or with an androgyne. This includes masturbation as well as homosexu- ality; (iii) masturbation by a woman or use of a plant root as an artificial phallus. Acetana : (i) of a man, with the statue of a woman (celestial, human, or animal) fashioned in plaster, wood, stone, or leather, or in the form of a painting ; 1 P(A) 16. 2 Av (H), p, 82.56. 4 YS iii. 94 (p. 558). 5 SDhA iv. 58. ' 3 RK iii. 14. T (S) vii. 11 (p. 78), THE BRAHMA-VRATA 87 (ii) with other inanimate objects such as the current of a stream or clay; (iii) of a woman, with an inanimate phallus of wood or with other artificial devices. The introduction of the concepts sa-cetana and acetana into the content of this anu-vrata seems to be an innovation as it does not appear in the main stream of the Svetambara commentaries, but it recurs among the Digambaras, and Amitagati, for example, refers to females, human, animal, and inanimate . 1 (i) Itvara-parigrhita-gamana. The first element of the compound raises numerous difficulties. Siddhasena Ganin 2 offers two explanations: either itvara (itvari, itvarika ) signifies a harlot or else the word is used elliptically for itvara-kalam , implying a woman taken for a short time. In any event he regards the aticara as prohibiting intercourse with a prostitute if she is being kept by one man since for a limited period she has ceased to be common property. Haribhadra , 3 too, favours the interpretation ‘a kept woman 1 , and Abhayadeva, Ya^odeva, Hemacandra, and Siddha- sena Suri take the same view. This transgression has the character of an aticara , being both a bhanga because the kept woman, in the mind of her lover, has become his property and been assimilated to the status of a temporary wife, and yet not a bhanga since she will in fact revert to being a prostitute when her temporary con- tract expires . 4 Asadhara , 5 who calls this offence itvarika-gamana , follows closely the explanations of Hemacandra but extends the meaning of itvarika to include any woman who has become ‘ownerless' through the loss of her husband and who leads a dis- orderly life. The parallel offence in Samantabhadra’s 6 list seems from Prabhacandra’s comment to refer to intercourse with any unchaste woman. For Camundaraya , 7 and presumably for the other Digambara authorities who distinguish this aticara from the next, it refers simply to the frequentation of prostitutes. (ii) A-parigrhita-gamana. For Siddhasena Ganin 8 this designation covers intercourse with any ‘ownerless’ woman whether she be a whore, or a married woman whose husband is absent, or any other woman outside the control of her family. The same acceptation is given to the term by Haribhadra, Abhayadeva, 1 Sr (A) xii. 77. 2 T (S) vii. 23 (p. 108). 3 Av (H), p. 8 25a. 4 YS iii. 94 (p. 555). 5 SDhA iv. 58. 6 RK iii. 14. 7 CS, p. 6. 8 T (S) vii. 23 (p. 108). 88 JAINA YOGA Ya^odeva, Hemacandra, and Siddhasena Suri. It is an aticara of sva-dara-santosa. A Digambara interpretation is available only from Camundaraya , 1 who holds that this offence is committed with an ‘ownerless’ woman who is a wanton. Devendra 2 understands by a-parigrhita ‘a widow’. (iii) Ananga-krIda. Siddhasena Ganin’s 3 explanation of this seems to overlap with the following aticara. He understands by it a combination of methods to heighten sexual passion: the use of artificial phalli made of wood, leather, clay, and other constituents, caressing the sexual organs, pulling the hair, biting and marking with the nails. Such practices he says, result in disease for the persons who give way to them. Haribhadra’s 4 definition is virtually the same: caressing a woman after coitus in order to re-inflame desire, and with Abhayadeva s he offers in addition an alternative interpretation : toying (krida) with parts of the body — the breasts, loins, armpits or face — other than the sexual organs (literally an-anga ‘not the organ’) ; Hemacandra and Siddhasena Suri leave the choice open between this second version and that of Siddha- sena Ganin. This offence may be regarded as an aticara not a bhanga because it refers to caresses and love-play, and not to the complete sexual act . 6 The Digambara authorities, including in this case Asadhara , 7 understand this aticara to include various sexual deviations, particularly fellatio and cunnilinguism. (iv) Kama-bhoga-tIvrabhilasa. The conventional Sve- tambara description of this offence visualizes a man who abandons all other thoughts and occupations in order to concentrate his every energy on the satisfaction of his sexual desires, and when his virility fails him has recourse to aphrodisiacs in the hope of attaining the potency of a stallion or bull elephant . 8 Such is the explanation furnished in almost identical language by Siddhasena Ganin, Hemacandra, Siddhasena Suri, and Asadhara. But as has already been noted this concept does not seem to be the most original. Haribhadra 8 explains that hama means the senses of sight and hearing and bhoga those of taste, smell, and touch; the aticara would therefore amount to ‘an excessive propensity for the pleasures afforded by the five senses’ ; but these lead on to the inflaming of passion ‘by using the nails or teeth or lotus leaves and 3 T (S) vii. 23 (p. 109). 6 YS iii. 94. & * I 1 CS, p. 6. 3 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 95. 4 Av (H), p. 825a. 5 P (A) 16. 7 SDhA iv. 58. 8 Av (H), p. 8256. THE BRAHMA-VRATA 89 by taking aphrodisiacs or by caressing the woman’s pudenda’. This is also the view of Abhayadeva 1 and Ya^odeva, who point out that the vow of sva-dara-santosa implies that copulation should never be prolonged once desire is appeased. The vow is sullied if a man seeks to prolong his gratification by the use of aphrodisiacs or of the methods taught in the kama-sastras . 2 Apart from Asadhara the Digambaras, who prefer the designation kama-twrabhinivesa (or in Samantabhadra’s case vipula-trsa ), regard the aticara as ‘an excessive manifestation of sexual passion.’ 3 Devendra 4 * understands by this ‘lip-biting and other love-play’ or else the 84 poses of Vatsyayana. (v) Para- vivaha-karana. Siddhasena Gaping notingthatthe abstention from this implied in the taking of the vrata may seem strange since a householder must of necessity marry off his children, finds an analogy in the duality of the vow itself. A layman promises by sva-dara-santosa to abstain from the enjoyment of all women save his own wife; similarly he is to abstain from arranging the marriages of other people’s offspring but not of his own. The use of the word para implies, says Haribhadra, 6 that he is actuated by a relationship of affection or by desire for the bride-price ( kanya - phala). Abhayadeva 7 further comments that the question of bride- price does not arise for a person of right faith whilst an unbeliever will not have taken the vows. Plowever, he must ensure that his own daughters are married off since otherwise they would be led into evil courses. Abhayadeva also notes the view held by some authori- ties that this aticara implies an obligation to monogamy since it excludes a second marriage ( para-vivaha ) of oneself: in fact the very phrase sva-dara-santosa would indicate that to take a second wife implies dissatisfaction with the first. 8 Hemacandra 9 and Si- ddhasena Suri, summarizing all the preceding considerations, em- phasize that in the case of one’s children to marry them represents the lesser of two evils. There is an element of fault in it, but to neglect to do so would be worse still. In general, para-vivaha - karana is a hhahga if one has in mind that its result is copulation, but not a hhahga if one thinks of it only as a ceremony. Devendra 10 interprets para as parakiya ‘those belonging to others’ and so by 1 P(A) 15. 4 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 95. 7 P (A) 16. 10 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 95- 0 737 2 P (Y) v. 16. 5 T (S) vii. 23 (p. 108). 8 Ibid. (p. 26). H 3 CS, p. 7. 6 Av (H), p. 8256. 9 YS iii. 94 (p. S5&)- 90 JAINA YOGA definition excludes from the aticara the marrying of one’s own children. In this he is in accord with the Digambara tradition as explicitly stated by Pujyapada, 1 and implied by Camundaraya. Asadhara 2 * follows the detail of Hemacandra’s explanations. The Avasyaka CurnP has evidently preserved a very ancient tradition when it relates this aticara to beasts as well as to men. Thus to say ‘let the bull be released in the go-dhand would be to transgress the vrata in the same way as if one said ‘let the nubile girl be wedded’. Later writers treat such advice as a contravention of the anartha-danda-vrata. Siddhasena Ganin 4 notes a variant reading for the Tattvartha - siitra which would lay down the first two aticaras to be itvarikd- gamana and parigrhitdparigrhita-gamana. The former would then apply to intercourse with a low or contemptible woman (kutsita- samkirna-yosit) explained as ‘one who is mentally or physically defective or who has entered the religious life’ ; it is reprehensible because it might incur punishment from the ruler and disparage- ment from the public. The second aticara would then be ‘inter- course with a prostitute or with a married woman separated from her husband’. There is some uncertainty as to which aticaras belong to sva- dara-santosa and which to para-dara-virati , though by general agreement the last three are common to both. As to the first two offences, three different opinions 5 prevail: r. That both are aticaras of sva-dara-santosa but not of para- dara-virati : this is often referred to as ‘Haribhadra Suri’s opinion’. 6 2. That the first is an aticara only of para-dara-virati and the second only of sva-dara-santosa. 3. That both are aticaras of para-dara-virati but not of sva-dara- santosa. The authority for this is a Prakrit verse quoted in the Sravaka-dharma-pancaiaka : para-dara-vajjino panca honti tinni u sa-dara-santutthe itthie tinni panca va hhanga-vigappehini aiyara This view, like the first, is at least as old as the Avasyaka Curnid 1 T (P) vii. 28. 4 T (S) vii. 23 (p. 109). 6 PS 277 (p. 73). SDhA iv. 58. 3 Av Cu, pt. ii, p. 292. 5 Y£ iii. 94 (p. 557). 7 Av Cu, pt. ii, p. 291. THE BRAHMA-VRATA 91 As has been noted elsewhere, all sexual intercourse is to be con- demned. At best, in the words of Yasodeva , 1 a layman may be per- mitted, if he cannot resist the sex urge but being fearful of sin (papa-bhiru) does not wish to be unchaste, to have recourse to a limited use of his own wife. A^adhara 2 concedes that if he fails to be convinced that meditation and not copulation is the remedy for the disease of lust he may seek such satisfaction. The fever of concupiscence is no more quenched by satisfaction, says Hema- candra , 3 than fire is extinguished by oblations of ghee. The con- cession may in the general view of the acaryas go further than the use of one’s wife and include recourse to prostitutes, but an anya- stri (a married woman, or an unmarried girl in the care of her parents) must always be left alone. Enjoyment of women betakes of the nature of affliction because like fever it brings on thirst, and delirium', and exhaustion of the body. The passionate pleasure of the encounter can give no real satisfaction . 4 Two reasons 5 * are alleged as a basis for the condemna- tion of all carnal contact; that in a moral sense the calm of the soul is disturbed by the increase of the passions of love and hate ; and that in a physical sense the sexual act is always accompanied by hirnsafi The second is the expression of a concept which goes back to the canonical texts 7 and on which the Digambaras particularly expatiate, adducing it in support of the contention that a woman cannot attain moksa in this life. It is held that there are always pre- sent in the navel, armpits, and pudenda of a woman myriads of minute living creatures of which large numbers perish during every act of coitus. Thus Amrtacandra 8 likens the act to the intro- duction of a heated iron bar into a tube containing grains of sesa- mum and adds that it has similar destructive results. Anaiiga-krlda multiplies the risk of himsa. The Svetambaras who recognize the possibility of stri-mukti do not often touch on this subject, which, however, finds a place in Hemacandra’s^ exposition of the brahma- vrata. Concerned as often in other places to seek support for the 1 P (Y) 15. 2 SDhA iv. 51. 3 ii. 81. 4 SDhA iv. 53-54. s Ibid. 55, 6 It is curious to note that Jainism concurs with Christianity in condemning for a very different motivation, all sexual intercourse. Cf. De Sanchez, De matri- monii sacro Sacramento. * Non desunt ex doctoribus catholicis qui doceant actum conjugalem non posse absque culpa saltern veniali exerceri 7 See Schubring, Das Mahanisiha-Sutta , p. 70. 8 PASU 108. 9 Yg ii. 79. 92 JAINA YOGA Jaina concept in outside sources, he quotes Vatsyayana’s Kama - sutra for the statement that ‘tiny worms generated in the blood are to be found in a woman’s sexual organs where they produce an itching ’. 1 For this apparent attempt at rationalization there would seem to be no justification in the earlier texts. A distinction is sometimes made between sthula-maitkuna and suksma-maithuna . According to a definition that comes from a late authority 2 * the former is enjoyment of women, human or celestial, in mind, word, or action whilst the latter implies a slight exciting of the sense-organs under the stimulus of desire. From the oldest stratum of Jainism comes the injunction to avoid, as the Sravaka-prajnapti 3 puts it, ‘the delusive sight of the bodies of women’. Devagupta and his commentator Ya^odeva* mention a special yatana or striving for those who seek to perfect the brahma-vrata : chann' -ariga-damsane phdsane ya go-mutta-gahana-ku-ssumine jayand savvattha kare indiya-avaloyane ca taha In other words a man should never stare at, or touch, the sexual organs of a woman or vice versa. Against the background of a pantheistic concept of the universe this interdiction is naturally extended to the animal creation. It is therefore forbidden to stimu- late a cow to urinate by rubbing its vagina; the urine should be collected when it is discharged naturally. Again, when a seminal emission occurs during sleep the mind should be concentrated in meditation on the sacred doctrine after recitation of the panca- namaskara . Amongst the Digambara writers who do not detail the aticaras of the brahma-vrata Karttikeya 5 defines it as ‘regarding the wife of another as one’s own sister or daughter and realizing that the bodies of women are full of impurity and that beauty and charm can only delude the mind’. For Vasunandin 6 it implies the complete renun- ciation of anahga-hrida and the abstinence from sexual relations during the parvan days. The arrows of Kamadeva are, he says, fatal to a righteous life. As will have become evident, the aticaras of this vrata cover most aspects of sexual deviations. Adultery ( para-dara ) and fornication 1 Y£> ii. 8o. 2 Ratnasekhara on Sraddha-pratikyamana-sutra, 15. 3 grPr 274. 4 p (Y) I7 ( p . 73). s ka. 337 _8. 6 Sr (V) 211. THE BRAHMA-VRATA 93 (vesya) also figure among the seven vyasanas and are treated at length under that head in the popular literature. But the offence which incurs the keenest reprobation does not figure in any category. From the earliest days of Jainism there is evident an almost obsessional horror of incest. Thus Haribhadra, 1 repeating the words of the Avasyaka Curni> says that if the brahma-vrata were not enforced there would be a grave danger of a man having carnal connexion with his mother or sister or daughter through unrestrained lust. A series Of cautionary tales to drive home this point are recounted by almost every writer on sravakacara and any reference to marriage makes exogamy mandatory. THE APARIGRAHA-VRATA This vow of non- attachment which alone of the anu-vratas has no correspondent among the maha-vratas of monks refers both to internal ( abhyantara ) and external ( bahyd ) parigraha. There are fourteen varieties of the former which are listed by Am^acandra, 2 Somadeva, and A^adhara among the Digambaras and by Siddha- sena Ganin 3 among the Svetambaras. They are in fact largely irrelevant to the consideration of the vrata, but for the sake of completeness will be noted here (they of course comprise the (8) displeasure, dejection ( arati ) ; (9) fear (bhaya) ; (10) sorrow (soka)\ (1 1) disgust (jugupsa) ; (12) male sex urge (pum-veda); (13) female sex urge ( stn-veda ); (14) androgyne sex urge (napum- saka-veda). It is with the ten or (in the more current enumeration) nine 1 Av (H), p. 8236. 2 PASU 1 16. kasayas and no-kasayas ) : (1) false belief (mith- yatva ) ; (2) anger (krodha ) ; (3) pride ( mdna ) ; (4) deceit (maya) ; (5) greed (lobha); (6) sense of the absurd (hasya ) ; (7) pleasure (rati ) ; 3 T (S) vii. 24. JAINA YOGA external objects of parigraha SvETAMBARA 1 (1) land ( ksetra ) ; (2) houses (vdstu ) ; (3) silver (hiranya ) ; (4) gold ( suvarna ) ; (5) diverse commodities (dhana ) ; (6) grain ( dhanya ) ; (7) servants and birds (1 dvipada ) ; (8) livestock (catuspada ) ; (9) furniture (kupya). that the vow is concerned. These are : Digambara* (1) land (ksetra); (2) houses (vastu ) ; (3) gold coins (hiranya ) ; (4) gold (suvarna ) ; (5) livestock (dhana ) ; (6) grain (dhanya ) ; (7) maidservants (dasi) ; 3 (8) menservants(^«); 3 (9) cloth (kupya) ; (10) beds (iayydsana). Detailed classifications of all these types of possessions drawn from the canonical literature are found in almost all the $vetam- bara authorities 4 and although they seem to have no direct relation with the interpretation of the vrata they will be enumerated here. The oldest distinction is that of sacitta (animate) and acitta (inanimate) objects. 5 1. Land; this is of three types: (a) setu-ksetra — land irrigated artificially by norias (araghafta) or other means ; (b) ketu-ksetra — dry farming land depending on rain ; (c) misra — irrigated land which also receives rain. 2. Houses; again of three types: (a) excavated (khata ) ; (b) raised (ucchrita ) ; (c) a combination of both (khdtocchrita). 3. The unanimous testimony of the Svetambara texts interprets hiranya as ‘silver, minted or unminted’ and, in fact, the later works from Devendra’s £raddha-dina-krtya 6 onwards replace hiranya by 1 NPP 58. 2 CS, p. 7. 3 The translation ‘servants* is based on the author’s own explanation bhftya- stri-puru$a-varga but dasa and dasi are certainly in many instances better trans lated by ‘slaves’. See PremI, op. cit., pp. 546-53. 4 e.g. P (A) 17, 18. 5 e.g. 3 rPr 275. 6 &rDK p. 98. THE APARIGRAHA-VRATA c, s less ambiguous terms. For the Digambara deary as it seems always to have meant ‘coins whether of gold or silver’. 4. There is no hesitation in the interpretation of the word as ‘gold’, for the Digambaras ‘unminted,’ for the Svetambaras ‘minted or unminted’. 5. The Svetambaras, giving a very broad sense to dhana> class it into four categories: 1 (a) What can be counted (ganima) : such as nutmegs ( jati-phala\ betel nuts (puga-phala) ; (b) What can be contained ( dharima ) : such as saffron ( kunkuma ), molasses ( guda ) ; (c) What can be measured (meya) : such as salt, ghee, oil; (d) What can be divided up ( paricchedya ): such as gems and cloth. 6. There is no unanimity on the number of varieties of dhanya : the earlier £vetambaras name seven or eight sorts, Hemacandra and Siddhasena Suri fix the figure at seventeen, whilst Devendra (and with him later writers such as Ratnasekhara and Ya^ovijaya) prefers a list of twenty-four drawn from the Dasavaikalika - niryukti. Here is Hemacandra’s list: 2 (a) rice (vrthi) ; (;') Italian millet, Panicum itali- cum ( priyangu ) ; (b) barley ( yava ) ; (k) the grain Paspalum scrabicu- latum (kodrava ) ; (c) lentils ( masura ) ; (/) hemp {sand) ; (d) wheat {godhuma ) ; (m) a kind of pulse (kalaya ) ; (a) the pulse Phaseolus (n) the pulse Dolichos uniflorus Mungo {mudga ) ; {kulattha ) ; (/) the pulse Phaseolus (0) the pulse Phaseolus aconiti - radiatus {masa ) ; folius { makusta ) ; (g) sesamum (tila); (p) ric e(sali); (h) the grain Panicum milia - (q) the pulse Cajanus indicus ceum ( anava ) ; ( adhaki ). (t) chickpeas {canaka) ; 7 and 8. Dvipada is generally taken to include all the members of the household (wives, slaves, servants) and also domesticated birds such as parrots or peacocks. The oldest texts, for example, the 1 P (A) 18 (p. 38). y£ iii. 95. 9 6 JAINA YOGA Avasyaka Ciirni 1 mention alongside dvipada and catmpada a cate- gory of apada objects including carts and trees. Carts figure at a much later date in the dvipada class of the $raddha-dina~krtya , 2 inappropriately in the context as they cannot be said to propagate themselves. 9. Kupya is used by the £vetambaras 3 to mean household chattels ( grhopaskara ) made of iron, copper, brass, tin, lead, earthenware, bamboo, or wood, such as pots and pans, buckets, beds, chairs. It also includes carts and ploughs. The Digambaras 4 seem to understand the expression to mean what might be called luxury goods : sandal [candana), silk (ksauma), cotton cloth (karpasa), silk dresses (kauseya). Ratna^ekhara, 5 who is later than the period we are discussing, recalls a classification of the householder’s property from the Dasavaikalika-niryukti where six categories are distinguished: (1) dhanya— of which there are twenty-four kinds; (2) ratna — a comprehensive list again of twenty-four kinds: gold, silver, brass, tin, iron, lead, minted coins, semi-precious stones, diamonds, precious stones, pearls, coral, conches, aloe wood, sandalwood, cotton cloth, woollen cloth, timber, hides, ivory, yaks’ tails, perfumes, and resin ( dravyausadha ) ; (3) sthdvara — the three kinds of immovable property are : land (presumably arable land), houses, and orchard land (torn- gana explained as ‘groves of coconut and similar trees’) ; (4) dvipada — there are two kinds of bipeds : human beings and two-wheeled carts ; (5) catmpada — ten varieties of livestock are listed as quadrupeds : oxen, buffaloes, camels, goats, sheep, thoroughbred horses (1 asva } i ,e.jatya) } ordinary horses (ghotaka } i.e, ajatya ), mules, asses, and elephants ; (6) kupya — implements and utensils of various kinds, no figure being given. In the traditional Svetambara view the aticaras of this vrata are: (i) exceeding the limits set for land and houses by incorpora- tion (yojanena ksetra-vdstu-pramandtikrama) ; 1 Av Cu, pt. ii, p. 292. 2 3 rDK, p. 99. 3 Y& iii. 95. 4 CS, p. 7. s Ratnasefchara on Sraddha-pratikramona-sutra , 18. THE APARIGRAHA-VRATA 97 (ii) exceeding the limits set for gold and silver by donation ( pradanena hiranya-suvarna pramanatikrama ) ; (iii) exceeding the limits set for grain and other foodstuffs by packaging together ( bandhanena dhana-dhanya-pramanati- krama ) ; (iv) exceeding the limits set for bipeds and quadrupeds by natural reproduction (karanena dvipada-catuspada-pramana- tikrama ) ; (v) exceeding the limits set for household chattels by combina- tion (bhavena kupya-pramanatikrama ). All these aticaras consist in using various expedients to circum- vent the interdictions which devolve from a man’s self-imposed restrictions on the extent of his property. Any overt breach of this vrata which is a form of pratyakhyana would constitute a bhanga. For those ^vetambara writers who are influenced by the Tatt - vdrtha-siitra — Siddhasena Ganin 1 and Haribhadra — and in general for the Digambara authorities, the aticaras imply no more than wil- fully exceeding the limits set for the nine categories of possessions ranged under the five heads above. Samantabhadra, 2 though aware of these categories, has established a totally novel series of aticaras : (i) ati-vahana — out of greed of gain driving oxen or other beasts of burden for" a greater distance than they can com- fortably go ; (ii) ati-samgraha — hoarding of grain or other commodities in the hope of making a very high profit, so as to obtain a big return on capital; (iii) ati-vismaya — extreme disappointment at having sold some- thing at a price involving a loss ; (iv) ati-lobha — excessive greed expressed in wishing for a higher price when a good price has been obtained; (v) ati-bhara-vahana — overloading of beasts of burden through greed of gain. More than any other similar provisions of the moral code these aticaras are designed exclusively for the trading community ; and the fact that the last of them is little more than a repetition of the fifth aticara of the ahimsa-vrata emphasizes their secondary charac- ter. In fact Samantabhadra’s innovation in this field was imitated by none of his successors except Sakalakirti. 1 T (S) vii. 24. 2 RK iii. 16. 98 JAINA YOGA Returning to the original enumeration of the aticaras we find the following elucidations in the commentators : 1 (i) Yojanena ksetra-vAstu-pramAnAtikrama. The assumption is that a man has taken a vow of pratyakhyana that he will not possess more than a given number of houses or fields. Suppose then, for example, that he acquires an additional field; and to avoid breaking the letter of his undertaking incorporates this with a field already in his ownership by removing a boundary fence. Though he will still have the same number of fields he will have committed an aticara but not a bhanga of his vow. (ii) Pradanena hiranya-suvarna-pramAnAtikrama. In' this case if a man, perhaps as a gift from a satisfied prince, acquires gold or silver in excess of the limits which he has imposed on himself, for a period of say four months, he may give it to a third party — to his wife, for example — on the understanding that he will get it back when the time limit of his pratyakhyana has passed. Here again he will not have broken the letter of his vow but will, all the same, have committed an aticara. (iii) Bandhanena dhana-dhAnya-pramAnAtikrama. Suppose that someone has imposed on himself pratyakhyana in respect of the acquisition of grain and other commodities for a period of four months, but is about to receive additional stocks. If he then goes along and has these tied up in bundles with ropes and leaves them where they are until he has sold the stocks already on his premises he will in a similar way have been guilty of an aticara. (iv) Karanena dvipada-catuspada-pramAnAtikrama. Here it is assumed that a man has vowed not to increase his live- stock, say, for a year. If they were allowed to breed freely in the meantime he would break the vrata. completely; accordingly he arranges that a cow, for example, will be in calf when the period of his pratyakhyana expires but will not actually have calved. Though there is thus a potential increase in numbers he will be only guilty of an aticara , (v) BhAvena kupya-pramAnAtikrama. If a man has undertaken to limit the number of his household utensils and later acquires additional ones he will be guilty of an aticara if, to keep the numbers the same, he has some of them welded together, two 1 e.g. P (A) 18; NPP 63; Yg iii, 96. THE APARIGRAHA-VRATA 99 by two. On the subject of kupyci an opinion is also recorded by the seventeenth-century writer Ya^ovijaya 1 that here the fictitious pretext invoked is donation to a third party. Certain writers devote themselves to an assessment of the nature oi parigraha. The Digambaras explain it as murcha , the ‘hallucina- tion’ of material possessions; and murcha in the definition of Amrtacandra 2 is the development of acquisitive egotism (j mamatva ) arising from the operation of delusion (moha). In all forms of parigraha, internal and external, himsa is implicit. By a graduated progression the internal parigraha can be eliminated; whilst the external form, if it cannot be completely extirpated, can at least be rendered as exiguous as possible. For Amitagati 3 every arambha in the world stimulates parigraha , and conversely if this is curtailed harmful activity is reduced. Siddhasena Ganin* expatiates on the evil results to which murcha can lead. In lust for gain son will murder father, and brother brother. It is for this reason that men bear false witness and rob on the highways. THE DIG-VRATA As has already been noted, the original iSvetambara grouping of the guna-vratas covers a certain number of long-term restraints whilst the siksa-watas represent recurring exercises in self-dis- cipline, but it is only the dig-vrata that is accorded an exact pendant among the latter : the desavakasika-vrata, which in the Digambara lists is made to follow directly after it. Except in their temporal and spatial limits these two vows are identical. The nomenclature of the aticaras of the dig-vrata is, to all intents and purposes, the same for ^vetambaras and Digambaras : (i) going beyond the limits in an upward direction ( urdhva-dik - pramanatikrama ) ; (ii) going beyond the limits in a downward direction ( adho-dik - pramandtikrama ) ; (iii) going beyond the limits in a horizontal direction (tiryag-dik- pramanatikramd ) ; (iv) expanding the limits of the area of movement ( ksetra-vrddhi ) ; (v) forgetfulness (smrty-antardhana). 1 Dharma-samgraha, 48. 3 £r (A) vi. 75. 2 PASU iii-28. 4 T (S) vii. 12. 100 JAINA YOGA The fundamental idea of the vrata is to reduce quantitatively a man’s sinful actions by circumscribing the area in which they can be committed. To express this, one simile, incorporated already in the Avasyaka Curni> is repeated from author to author among the Svetambaras and is used by some Digambaras, notably Samanta- bhadra and Asadhara: tattaya-gola-kappo pamatta-jwo ’ nivariya-ppasaro savvattha kim na kujjapavam tak-karananugao 1 Like a heated iron sphere the layman will inevitably, as a result of pramada , bring about the destruction of living creatures every- where, whether he is walking, or eating, or sleeping, or working. The more his movements are restricted the fewer trasa-jivas and sthdvara-jivas will perish. Although the primary effect of this vrata is to curtail travel (Devagupta 2 expressly stipulates that certain roads are to be avoided in order not to destroy frogs) it has also a special associa- tion with the preceding ami-vrata. Thus the Dvadaianupreksa 3 emphasizes that the complete restraint thereby imposed makes it possible to extirpate lobha which is at the root of parigraha. Hemacandra 4 says that the dig-vrata , by putting the acquisition of gold and silver and other wealth often out of a man’s reach, will free him from the empire of greed, here chosen for an example, as the most tenacious of the papa-sthanas. Let us turn back to the individual aticdras : (i) Urdhva-dik-pramanatikrama. As it is forbidden to ascend a mountain or to climb to the summit of a tree, a ban on all upward movement outside very narrow limits — perhaps within one’s own house — would seem to be intended. Haribhadra 5 and Devagupta preserve a very primitive tradition found in the Avasyaka Curni : if a piece of jewellery is carried off by a monkey or a bird it is not permissible to transgress the limits one has im- posed for oneself by climbing up to seek it, but if it is dropped one may retrieve it. (ii) Adho-dik-pramanAtikrama. Again the limits appear to be set very narrowly. It is forbidden to descend into a well or the underground store of a village (grama-bhiimi-grha) if outside the limits fixed, even if something has been dropped there. 1 Av Cu, pt. ii, p. 394. 4 Y£ iii. 3. 2 NPP 70. 3 KA 341. 5 Av (H), p.[827 b. THE DIG-VRATA IOI (iii) Tiryag-dik-pramAistatikrama. This for the Svetam- baras applies to normal travelling in all directions, north, south, east, and west; and the boundaries are set fairly wide. (In the explanation of the fifth aticara a figure of a 100 yojanas is given by way of example.) Digambara writers 1 refer to the demarcation of limits by the position of well-known seas, rivers, forests, moun- tains, and states, and to measurement by yojanas. At the same time they seem to attempt to maintain a parallelism with the two pre- ceding offences by citing as an instance of this aticara the act of entering a cave in a mountainside which is outside the limits set. In all three cases the transgression is an aticara if committed inadvertently, a bhanga if done deliberately. (iv) Ksetra-vRDDHI. This is universally explained as an attempt to evade one’s obligation by extending the limits in which freedom of movement is allowed. (v) Smrty-antardhana. Suppose that a man has set a limit of ioo yojanas for his movements in the eastern direction, but through inattention and carelessness has forgotten the figure he had decided on. Uncertain whether it was ioo or 50, he hesitates. If he then goes outside the radius of 100 yojanas he will have com- mitted a bhanga but owing to the state of mind induced by his uncertainty he will still be guilty of an aticara if he exceeds 50 yojanas . 2 The aticdras deal with the spatial but not the temporal limits of the vrata, which by contrast with those of the desavakasika-vrata — a few hours or at most a day — are considerable: not less than four months (naturally, as later texts show, the four months of the rainy season are intended) or a year or for one’s life long. 3 In the Ratna-karanda 4 the dig-vrata is defined as the determination, by circumscribing one’s range of movement, to desist from minor sin (1 ami-papa ) until death; and the lifelong character of this form of pratyakhyana seems implicit in certain other descriptions. A6adhara, s borrowing a phrase widely current to explain the significance of the samayika-vrata , says that in the dig-vrata a layman becomes like an ascetic (jay ate yativad grhi). In view of the close relationship between the dig-vrata and the desavakasika-vrata it is perhaps surprising that the aticdras of one have not been transposed to the other. Yet the only instance of this 1 RK iii. 23. 2 P (A) 20 . 3 Av (H), p. 827a. 4 RK iii. 22. 5 SDhA v. 3 . io2 JAINA YOGA seems to be found in the Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka 1 ‘vajjai uddhaikkamam anayana-ppesanobhaya-visuddham y where anayana and presana are introduced from the desavakasika-wata. Abhaya- deva’s commentary on these words — that they imply the fetching or sending for something — is absorbed into Hemacandra’ s 2 exhaus- tive description. THE BHOGOPABHOGA-PARIMANA- VRATA For this the older 3vetambara writers prefer a designation in- herited from the Upas aka- dasah: upabhoga-paribhoga-parimana- vrata. Its terms are thus defined : 3 upabhoga — things used once or used internally such as food, flower garlands, betel, cooling pastes, unguents, incense, or such acts as bathing ; paribhoga — things that can be used repeatedly or used externally such as houses, furniture, women, clothes, jewellery, vehicles. If a modern term may be allowed to intrude here some items of the second category might roughly be classed as consumer durables. The words upabhoga and paribhoga are used with these meanings by all the &vetambara authorities except Hemacandra, and also in the Tattvartha-sutra and the Caritra-sara. With Hemacandra and the Digambaras the concepts remain the same, but the label upabhoga is attached to things used repeatedly whilst things used once are styled bhoga. Exceptionally Somadeva and Yasunandin do not adopt the expression upabhoga at all but retain paribhoga for things used repeatedly and employ bhoga for things used once. Two basic divisions of this vrata are recognized by the Svetam- baras: 4 it may refer to food eaten or to occupations pursued. The second aspect, expressed in a ban on the pursuit of fifteen cruel trades, is unknown to the Digambaras except A^adhara, 5 who for this theme is heavily indebted to Hemacandra. Other topics in- cluded at least by the Svetambaras under the bhogopabhoga-vrata are the ananta-kayas, the abhafyyas, and rdtri-bhojana. 1 P (SrDh), 20. 2 Yg iii. 97. 3 P (Y) 2i. 4 e.g. &rPr 285, 5 SDhA v. 21-23. THE BHOGOPABHOGA-PARIMAtfA-VRATA 103 As listed by the Svetambaras the aticaras are : (i) consuming sentient things {sacittahara) ; (ii) consuming what is connected with sentient things (sacitta- pratibaddhahard ) ; (iii) consuming uncooked vegetable products (apakvausadhi- bhaksana ) ; (iv) consuming partly cooked vegetable products ( duspakvau - sadhi-bhaksana ) ; (v) consuming ‘empty’ vegetable products ( tucchausadhi-bha - ksana ). For the third and fifth of these transgressions the Digambaras — and with them Haribhadra 1 (in the Dharma-bindu) and Hema- candra — substitute : (iii) consuming what is mixed with sentient things (sacitta- sammisrdhara ) ; (v) consuming what has been conserved by fermentation (abhisava). All these offences of course relate very narrowly to what is eaten. Amongst the Digambaras Somadeva 2 has made some modifica- tions in the list : thus the first aticdra refers to food that is prohibited (nisiddha) and the fifth to food the preparation of which has not been personally supervised ( aviksitd ). Samantabhadra 3 has preferred to establish a completely different list in which the aticaras are given a much wider interpretation: (i) lack of contempt for the poison of sensual pleasure {visaya- visato ’ nupeksa ); (ii) remembrance of it ( anusmrti) ; (iii) excessive desire for it in the present ( atilaulya ) ; (iv) excessive desire for it in the future ( atitrsa ) ; (v) excessive enjoyment of it (atyanubham). Sakalakirti alone follows Samantabhadra in this classification of the aticaras. The conventional list of them shows certain divergencies of treatment : v (i) Sacittahara. The Svetambaras 4 define this as the eating 1 DhB iii. 32. 2 Handiqui, p. 383. 3 RK iii. 44. 4 Y& iii. 98. io 4 JAINA YOGA of sentient things, that is, those containing prthvi-kayas, ap-kayas } or vanaspati-jtvas such as tubers ( kanda ) and roots (mula) or fruits. Siddhasena Ganin’s 1 commentary on the Tattvartha-sutra adds to this concept a mention of ananta-kayas . Camundaraya 2 understands by sacitta simply a vegetable organism (harita-kaya). (ii) Sacitta-pratibaddhahAra. Haribhadra 3 explains this as the eating of, for example, ripe fruits which are attached to a tree. Abhayadeva 4 offers another interpretation. A person may put a fruit such as a date in his mouth with the intention of eating the flesh which is acitta but not the stone which is sacitta . Even if he eats only the flesh he will have committed an aticara (not a bhanga) through this fact of putting it in his mouth. These two explana- tions are given by succeeding Svetambara authorities and by Asadhara . 5 Siddhasena Ganin 6 chooses a slightly different illustra- tion: he instances the eating of jujubes ( badara ) or udumbara fruits which are full of seeds or pips. The Digambara view — that of Pujyapada 7 and Camundaraya, for example — is that this aticara implies the consumption of anything that has been in contact with or near to sentient things. (iii) Apakvausadhi -beaks ana. Haribhadra 3 abstains from comment on this as unnecessary but records a variant reading ( pathantara ) : sacitta-sammisrahara. Discussing the Sravaka-dharma- pancasaka, Abhayadeva 8 notes that this and the two following aticaras refer to grain and pulses whilst the two preceding ones were concerned with fruit and roots. It may be asked why apa- kvausadhi-bhaksana is an aticara for if the substance involved is acitta no fault can be found with it and if sacitta it will already have been covered by the preceding aticaras. This offence has specifically the character of an aticara in relation to the vrata if it is done in the belief that even if flour is not cooked the fact that it has been ground will have destroyed its sacitta element. The same view is expressed by Ya^odeva and Siddhasena Suri. (iv) Duspakvausadhi -bh aksana. ForHaribhadra 3 andfor Siddhasena Ganin this means ‘half-cooked grains or pulses’ in which each individual grain, which may not have been cooked, will be sentient. Hemacandra 9 explains that it is because of the presence 1 T (S) vii. 2 CS, p. 13. 3 Av (H), p. 8z8 b. 4 P (A) az. 5 SDhA v. 20. 6 T (S) vii. 30. 7 T (P) vii. 35. 8 P (A) 22. 5 Yg iii. 98. THE BHOGOPABHOGA-PARIMA^A-VRATA io S at the same time of the acitta cooked grains and the sacitta un- cooked grains that the offence is an aticara. On the Digambara side Camundaraya 1 considers daspakvausadhi to mean ‘cooked rice spoiled either by excessive moisture or because the grains in the centre are still raw’. A^adhara 2 explains that whether it is under- cooked or over-cooked some grains will remain raw and therefore sentient. (v) Tucchausadhi-bhaksana. The traditional definition of this, that of Haribhadra 3 for example, is ‘the eating of such grains and pulses as undeveloped mudga from which there is little satis- faction of hunger whilst at the same time much harm is done’. In this connexion Devagupta thinks of sugar-cane and other pro- ducts which are unsatisfying even if eaten in quantity. Abhayadeva , 4 Ya^odeva, and Siddhasena Suri note that if an ‘empty 5 product were apakva or duspakva there would be an aticara in any case ; but, even if it is properly cooked, a person eating it will still have com- mitted an aticara inasmuch as he consumes it out of gourmandise after rendering it acitta by cooking, even though it does not serve the useful purpose of satisfying hunger. He will have kept the vrata in the letter whilst infringing it in the spirit. (iii) Sacitta-sammi^rahara. Siddhasena Ganin 3 under- stands by this either the eating of sweetmeats (modaka) mixed with fruits, flowers, or sesamum seeds or the eating of food into which small living creatures such as ants, or kunthus have fallen, whilst Haribhadra 3 suggests as an instance the eating of grain mixed with flowers. Hemacandra 6 mentions the consuming of a kind of cake {pur ana) mixed with ginger, pomegranate seeds, and other fruits or barley meal mixed with sesamum seeds and his examples are copied by Asadhara . 2 The Digambara 7 writers understand by sacitta minute living creatures. For Camundaraya 1 sammisra is what has been mixed in such a way that it cannot be divided whilst samba - ddha is what has merely been in contact with something else. (v) Abhisavahara. Siddhasena Ganin 5 offers two explana- tions: either wine or spirits produced by the fermentation of various substances or the use of fortifying vegetable substances. Hemacandra 6 has three: alcohol or soul gruel produced by fermentation; or the insertion of pieces of meat; or the use of a 1 CS, p. 13. 2 SDhA v. so. 3 Av (H), p. 8286. ♦ P (A) 22. s T (S) vii. 30. 6 y£ iii. 98. 7 T (P) vii. 35. C 787 I 106 JAINA YOGA fortifiant derived from wine or honey or other vegetable pro- ducts. Camundaraya 1 interprets as either sour gruel ( wiivira ) and similar products of fermentation or a stimulant (vrsya) Asadhara 2 understands by it the immoderate consumption of liquids such as milk or rice gruel which strengthen the body. As has been pointed out the orthodox Svetambara 3 view is that the first two offences refer to such things as roots and fruits and the last three to the staple foods : grains and pulses. The Digam- baras , 4 who employ a different terminology, do not appear to make this distinction but they recognize in each aticara two elements of fault. Not only are sentient things consumed but the vigour of the sense organs (indriya-mada) is thereby stimulated ; diseases arising from the wind humour may also be occasioned and there may be an element of sin in the remedies applied to counteract them. In any event the monk must avoid such food when seek- ing alms. Camundaraya 1 has a fivefold division, built up from the less explicit model given by Pujyapada 5 and Samantabhadra , 6 of pari - bhoga and upabhoga to which he gives the common name of bhoga : trasa-ghata , pramada , bahu-vadha, anista, anupasevya: (i) always to be avoided are things which involve the killing of living creatures that move ( trasa-ghata ). Under this head come honey and meat; (ii) to be avoided in order to eliminate carelessness ( pramada ) is alcohol which blurs the distinction between what should be done and what should not be done; (iii) better to be avoided in order to prevent much killing ( bahu - vadha) are the ananta-kayas such as arjiina and ketaki flowers, unripe ginger, turmeric, radishes, or margosa flowers for when they are consumed there is great destruc- tion but little profit ; (iv) to be avoided in so far as they are undesirable (< anista ) 7 are vehicles, riding animals, ornaments, and similar luxuries. Some are permissible but the rest are not permissible and should be eschewed; 1 CS, p. 13. 2 SDhA v. 30. 3 Y& iii. 98. 4 e.g. CS, p. 13. 5 T (P) vii. at. 6 RK iii. 38-40. 7 The late commentator Prabhacandra is probably mistaken in understanding by anitfa ‘food that is unwholesome because it causes colic or other disorders’. THE BHOGOPABHOGA-PARIMAtfA-VRATA 107 (v) not to be enjoyed ( anupasevya )* even, though not undesirable. Deliberate abstention from such luxuries as gaudy clothes and ornaments is recommended. If they are not abandoned for the duration of one’s life their use should be restricted as far as possible for a limited period of time. Amrtacandra 2 insists that hhoga and upabhoga lie at the root of himsa. Bearing in mind his own capacity a wise man should eschew even those varieties which are not forbidden and should restrict those which he is unable to abandon altogether. Indeed he should review continually his capacity for self-denial and if pos- sible curtail further each day the limits already set. This of course is in the very spirit of the stories of the Upasaka-dasah . The bhogopabhoga-parimana-vrata is of course, more con- spicuously than any other vrata , an expression of pratyakhyana. Samantabhadra 3 uses the vrord to explain the two methods of self- restriction: niyama and yama. The former is for a limited period of time — a day, a night, a fortnight, a month, two months, six months, and may relate to a wide range of utilitarian or luxury articles . 4 The latter term (apparently used only by the Digam- baras) implies renunciation for one’s life long. The Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka 5 enunciates the bhogopabhoga- parimana-vrata as covering abstinence from the consumption of the ananta-kayas, the udwnbaras, and the atyangas. The last term (Prakrit accanga ) has presented some difficulty to the commenta- tors. Abhayadeva takes it to mean either honey, alcohol, and meat or the practice of eating by night and use of garlands, sandal-paste, and similar substances, which are all described as occasioning excess of bhoga . RATRI-BHOJANA Great importance has always been attached by Jaina writers to the avoidance of taking food by night (ratri-bhojana). A passage of the Dasa-vaikalika-sutra gives to this abstention the status of a vow and on this authority Camundaraya 6 in the Caritra-sara makes 1 Prabhacandra explains as 'substances which even though prasuka are unfit for consumption by civilized people such as camel’s milk, cow’s urine, crushed shells, excrement, betel spittle’. 2 PASU 164-6. 3 RK iil. 43. ^ SDhA v. 14. 5 P (A) zr (p. 32). 6 CS, p. 7- xoS JAINA YOGA it into a sixth anu-vrata (being imitated in this by Sakalalurti) whilst Amptacandra 1 gives it in his sravakacara the position that a sixth vow would have occupied. However, this sixth vow failed to obtain general recognition and no aticara pentad was ever devised for it. For some Digambaras — Karttikeya 2 and Samantabhadra , 3 for ex- ample — and in the Avasyaka Curni a-ratri-bhojana is the subject of the fifth pratima and even when this, as in the general £vetam- bara view, is styled kayotsarga-pratima, forms still an important element in it. Again in certain enumerations — those of Amitagati and A^adhara — it figures among the mula-gunas. In general, how- ever, in the sramkacaras the topic of ratri-bhojana is treated either under the ahima-vrata or, since it is also counted as an abhaksya , under the paribhogopabhoga-parmana-vrata. Samantabhadra 3 defines abstention from ratri-bhojana as the abandonment of the fourfold aliments by night out of compassion for living beings. Amrtacandra , 4 who condemns this practice with especial vehemence, cites as arguments against it that there exist many tiny insects barely discernible by day which are completely invisible by night even when a lamp is lit, and that raga is always more intense in eating by night than in eating by day. Camundaraya repeats Samantabhadra’s definition and Vasunandin , 5 like those acaryas who place a-ratri-bhojana among the mula-gunas , regards it as a prerequisite for the observance of the first pratima. At night almost anything — moths, snakes, mice, bits of bones, skin, or hairs — may fall into a bowl of food, and the person who is eating will not be able to see them. And if he kindles a light moths and other tiny catur-indriya creatures will be dazzled and drop into the platter. However, as he refers expressly to ‘threefold night-eating’ Vasun- andin 6 would seem to admit that liquids may be consumed ; and the Sravaka-dharma-dohaka? expressly permits the taking of betel, medicines, and water during the night. The &vetambaras seem not to lay quite as much stress as the Digambaras on the avoidance of night eating, which receives only a bare mention under the paribhogopabhoga-vrata in the* Sravaka- dharma-pahcasaka and the Nava-pada-prakarana . Hemacandra, however, considers the subject of sufficient importance to devote to it a couple of dozen verses . 8 Four reasons are alleged for exclud- 1 PASU 129-34* 2 KA 382. 3 RK y . 2t . 4 PASU 132. s gr (V) 314. 6 Ibid. 318. 7 Doha 37. 8 Yg iii. 48-70. RATRI-BHOJANA 109 ing eating by night: the food may have been contaminated by the touch of pisdcas ox pr etas or other evil spirits; it may be infested by minute invisible organisms such as kanthu and panaka; 1 insects may have crawled or fluttered into it; and its contents will in any event be unrecognizable in the dark. To swallow an ant in this way destroys the intelligence, a fly makes one vomit, a louse causes dropsy, and a spider leprosy. 2 Where food has to be cooked and the platters washed up there is even greater himsa by night. The ban on eating by night, particularly on the consumption of mangoes and ghee, should also cover the first and last muhurtas of the day when the light is dim’. 3 Addiction to ratri-bhojana entails rebirth as an owl or crow, or vulture or cat, or pig or serpent, or lizard or scorpion. 4 For his condemnation of the practice of eating by night Hema- candra draws support lavishly from Hindu sources; from the Ayurvedic texts 5 for the quasi-medical reasons invoked, and in a more general sense from the mass of Hindu customary law and legends. Night, it is said, is a time of calamity when neither the oblation to fire, nor the offerings to the spirits of the ancestors, nor dana, nor puja are licit and when bathing is excluded, and it ill be- hoves a man therefore to eat during the hours of darkness. 6 Again it is traditional that in the morning the devas eat, at midday the rsis, in the afternoon the pitrs, in the evening the daityas and dainavas , and in the twilight the yaksas and raksaSasd Asadhara 8 takes over all Hemacandra’s arguments and at the same time agrees with Amrtacandra 9 in classing ratri-bhojana with the drinking of unfiltered water as a habit in which rdga is intense and which provokes great destruction of jivas; both practices are also said to be responsible for disease. The best type of Jaina will eat once a day, the next best, twice, like an animal, whilst the least satisfactory type, comprehending nothing, eats day and night mak- ing himself, in Hemacandra’s phrase, ‘a ruminapt though devoid of horns and tail’. 10 Later ^vetambara writers such as Ratnasekhara and Yagovijaya quote largely from the Nisitha-curni in discussing ratri-bhojana and dwell particularly on the assertion made there that if a grha - godhila (a kind of house lizard) gets into the food and its excretions 1 A kunthu is described as a very minute trlndriya insect and a panaka seems to be an organism producing mould. 2 YS iii. 50-51. 3 Ibid. 57. 4 Ibid. 67. 5 Ibid. 60. 6 Ibid. 56. 7 Ibid. 58-59. 8 SDhA iii. 11-15. 9 PASU 130. 10 YS iii. 62. no JAINA YOGA or parts of its body are eaten a similar lizard will come into exist- ence by spontaneous generation in the stomach of the eater. 1 • THE ABHAKSYAS " The definitions of what is not fit to be eaten are given considerable prominence particularly in the later Jainism. The standard Sve- tambara list of twenty-two abhaksyas is found as early as the Pravacana-saroddhara , 2 It has largely ousted the later list of six- teen preferred by Hemacandra. 3 Here are both enumerations : Nemicandra Hemacandra (1-5) five udumbaras (1-4) four banned vikrtis (6-9) four banned vikrtis (5-9) fi ve udumbaras (xo) snow (hima) (10) ananta-kayas (11) poison (visa) (11) unknown fruits (12) ice ( karaka ) (12) food eaten at night (13) earth (mrd) (13) pulses with raw milk products (dma-go-rasa-samprkta- dvidala) (14) food eaten at night (14) rice that has fermented (ratri-bhojana) ( puspitaudana ) (15) fruits with many seeds (15) curds kept for more than two (bahu-bija) days {dadhy-ah ar-dvitiya- tita) (16) ananta-kayas (16) tainted food (kuthitdnna) (17) pickles {sandhatia) (18) buttermilk in tiny lumps (ghola-vataka) (19) aubergines ( vrntaka ) (20) unknown fruits and flowers (21) ‘empty’ fruits ( tuccha-phala ) (22) tainted food ( calita-rasa ) The basic identity of the two lists is at once apparent. If, as the 1 Dharma-sanigraha, pt. i, p. 73 b. 2 PS, vv. 245-6. These verses are probably older than Nemicandra. They are found again in the Caitya-vandana-kulaka of Jinadatta Suri and are quoted by almost every later writer who refers to the subject. 3 Yg iii. 6-7. THE ABHAK$YAS nr commentator says, ghola-vataka is an upalaksana for ama-go-rasa - samprkta-dvidala and calita-rasa for puspitaudana and dadhy-ahar - dvitiyatita Hemacandra has no items that are not found in the longer list. However a list of twenty-five items consisting of Nemi- candra’s version with these two additions and a mention of srngataka ( Trapa bispinosa) is sometimes found . 1 The relevant verses of the Pravcicana-saroddhara are worth quoting: pane' -wnbari-cau-vigai hima-visa-karage ya savva-matti ya rayanl-bhoyanagam ciya bahu-biya-ahanta-sandhanam ghola-vadd vdyanganam amuniya-namani phulla-phalayani j luccha-phalam caliya-rasam vajjaha vajjdni bavlsam | The udiimbaras and vikrtis (abstinence from which is required for the observance of the mula-gunas) y ratri-bhojana , and the ananta- kayas are discussed separately. Of the other elements of the list I snow and ice are forbidden because their consumption necessitates l the destruction of ap-kayas whilst they are not essential to life like water itself . 2 Poison is not to be taken even if its effect can be counteracted by mantras because it will in any event kill innumer- 1 able gandolaka organisms in the stomach and because if death ensues it may provoke great delusions in the last hours. Later writers, from the fifteenth century onwards, here mention opium (ahi-phena). Earth is prohibited because it contains prthvi-kdyas> because it may be a source of generation of trasa-jivas with the full five senses like frogs, and because it may cause intestinal maladies. Salt is expressly excluded from the abhaksyas as being essential to life but all other kinds of earth including chalk(khatikd) are covered 1 by the ban. The bahu-Uja class covers fruits like pomegranates in i which there is a risk of destroying a jtva in each seed. By sandhana are meant pickles or preserves of bael and other fruits. Ghola- vataka is said to be used to cover ama-go-rasa-samprkta-dvidala ( dvidala being ‘pulses which when ground yield no oil 5 ); in it i there are organisms so minute that they can be discerned only by 1 a kevalin. Aubergines have aphrodisiac propertied and provoke a tendency to sleep too much. Unidentified fruits and flowers are to be avoided for if they are forbidden it is wrong to consume them ;■ 1 e.g. in the Yoga-vidhi of Candra Suri. 2 The explanations in this paragraph are all taken from Siddhasena Suri's commentary on the above verses. 112 JAINA YOGA and if they are poisonous they will occasion loss of life. The expres- sion tuccha-phala embraces also flowers, leaves, and roots, ‘empty’ because they do not satisfy hunger but cause much destruction of jivas. Examples of these are thebael fruits, and rose-apples, and the flowers of mahua, and Indian horse-radish. The term calita-rasa (food that has ‘gone off’) is meant to include by extension boiled rice which has fermented and curds kept for more than forty-eight hours; these are to be rejected because living organisms have started to multiply in them. Even if the twenty-two abhaksyas are listed for the first time in the Pravacana-saroddhara their enumeration is adumbrated at a much earlier date. Haribhadra, 1 relying on the Avasyaka Curni, situates them under the divisions of the caturvidhahara. Thus under as ana come meat and the ananta-kayas\ under pana meat- broth and alcohol; under khadima the udumbaras ; and under svadima honey. Devagupta 2 * adds to this embryo list butter, ghola- vataka, and ratri-bhojana. Yasodeva,3 who is posterior to Nemican- dra, gives no formal enumeration but mentions the five udumbaras, the four vikrtis , ice, earth, ratri-bhojana , bahu-'bijas, ananta-kdyas, and pulses mixed with raw milk products (mugga-gayam ama-go- ras'-ummisam). The Digambaras have not, at least during the period under review, defined with such precision the abhaksyas Amitagati 4 enumerates — rather surprisingly under the anartha-danda-vrata surana-kanda(znana?ita-ka.yd) — curds kept for more than two days, boiled rice that has fermented, drona 5 flowers and kalihga b flowers ; and states that in general any ananta-kaya and any substance that is tainted and no longer fresh is to be avoided. A^adhara 7 gives a more extensive but unnumbered list which he subdivides under the infractions of the mula-gunas. His abhaksyas, arranged in the order of the Svetambara list are : (1-4) four banned vikrtis (5-9) five udumbaras (10) water or other liquid in leather containers (mdmsa-vrata) (1 1) honey used as a collyrium (rnadhu-vrata) 1 Av(H),p.8a8&. 2 NPP75. 3 P(Y)ai. 4 &r (A) vi. 84-85. 5 Leucas linifolia Spreng. 6 Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. 7 SDhA iii. 11-14 and THE ABHAKSYAS ii3 (12) asafoetida ( hingti ) in contact with leather {mamsa-vratd) (13) any flowers such as those of mahua or marking-nut (bhallataka) {madhu-vratd) (14) food eaten at night (15) rice gruel that has fermented (puspita- kanjika) {madya-vrata) (16) ananta-kayas (17) pickles (sandhana) ( madya-vrata ) (18) pods {simbi) such as raja-mam (udumbara-mata) (19) aubergines (and jujubes, betel-nuts, &c.) unsplit (udumbara-vrata) (20) unknown fruits (: udumbara-vrata ) (21) curds kept for more than two days {madya-vrata) (22) tainted food {vyapanna-bhojya) {mamsa-vrata) There is also an interdiction on eating mangoes, ghee, and a num- ber of other foodstuffs in the last muhurta of the day. Snow and ice, poison and earth are absent from this list; on the other hand A^adhara includes articles that have been polluted by leather and also flowers (which take the place of empty fruits). Coupled with the abhaksyas is the ban on unfiltered water. Later Digambara lists closely follow AsSadhara’s pattern and make few noticeable additions to the objects forbidden. There are rudimentary lists too in the Sravaka-dharma-dohaka 1 and the Yasastilaka , 2 The former understands the abhaksyas to include nali, surana , mulaka , lasuna , and other ananta-kayas , flowers, curds kept for more than two days, fermented rice, and all tainted food. Somadeva names ananta-kayas and flowers. THE ANANTA-KAYAS Amongst the substances which a Jaina is forbidden to consume either as food or as medicine are included the ananta-kayas or sadhdranasy plants which are inhabited, not like the majority of the vegetable kingdom by individual jib#?, but by an infinite num- ber of living organisms. Where in the elementary bodies — earth, water, fire, wind — the individual^# wraps itself up only in a tiny part of the material, in the plant bodies additional jivas may attach 1 Doha 34-36. 2 Handiqui, p. 264. ii 4 JAINA YOGA themselves to the original individual and adhere to it until its development process is complete. Those plants which are classified as ananta-kayas seem to be chosen because of certain morpholo- gical peculiarities such as the possession of bulbs or rhizomes or the habit of periodically shedding their leaves ; and in general they are characterized by possibilities of vegetative reproduction. 1 A list of 3 2 is already conventional by the time of Nemicandra 3 and is repeated by successive writers. It is contained in the follow- ing verses : savva hu kanda-jai 3 siirana-kando ya vajja-kando ya adda-haliddd ya taha addam taha allci-kaccuro sattavan vircili kumdri taha thohari gilol ya lhasanani vama-karilla gajjara taha lonao lodho giri~kanni kisala-patta kaseniga thigga alla-mutthaya taha liina-rukkha-challi khelludo amaya-valli ya mtda taha bhiimi-rasa viruha taha dhakka-vatthulo padhamo suyara-vallo ya tahapallahko komaV -ambiliya dlu taha pindalu havanti ee ananta-namehim annarn anantam neyam lakkhana-juttze samayao An attempt is made below to identify the individual plants mentioned : Prakrit form Sanskrit form Botanical name English name (1) surana-kanda surana-kanda Amorphophallus campanulatus Br. (2) vajja-kanda vajra-kanda Synantherias sylva- tica Schott (3) adda-halidda moist haridra Curcuma longa Roxb. turmeric ginger (4) adda ardraka Zingiber officinale Roscoe (5) alla-kaccura moist kaccura Curcuma zedoaria Roscoe (6) sattavarl (7) viral! ^atavarl viralika Asparagus race- mosus Willd. (8) kumaii kumari Elettaria cardamo- mum Maton. card a- ' mom 1 See J. F. Kohl, ‘Pflanzen mit gemeinsamen Korper nach der Lehre der Jainas’ in Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic (1953), Bd. 78, pp. 91 if. 2 PS 236-41. 3 The commentators sometimes consider the first item on the list of thirty- two to be savva kanda-jai { all sorts of plant growths rooting below the soil, unless in a dried state) in which case suraria-kanda and vajra-kanda together form the second item. 3 THE ANANTA-KAYAS IIS Prakrit form Sanskrit form Botanical name English name (9) thohar! 1 snuhl Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. (10) giloi guduci Tinospera cordifolia Miers. (11) lhasana lacuna A Ilium sativum Linn. garlic (12) varnsa-karilla shoots of vamsa bamboo (13) gajjara (14) lonaya 2 (15) lodha 3 (16) giri-kanni garjaraka Iavanaka lodhalca giri-karnika Daacus carota Linn. carrot (17) kisala-patta — immature shoots of any 1 dnd (18) kaseruga kaseruka Sdrpus kysoor Roxb. (19) thigga thega Cyperus bulbosus (20) alla-muttha (21) luna-rukkha- challi 4 (22) khelluda (23) amaya-valli moist musta bark of lavana- vrksa khelluda amrta-valli Cyperus rotundus Linn. (24) mula mulaka Raphanus sativus Linn. radish (25) bhumi-rasa — mushrooms or other edibi 'e fungi (26) viruha (virudha) — sprouted pulses or grains (27) dhakka-vatthula 5 * (28) suyara-valli c tanka-vastula sukara-valli Feronia elephantum Correa (29) pallanka palyanlca Beta maritima Linn. beetroot (30) komal’-ambiliya immature amlika Tamarindus indica Linn. tamarind (31) alu 7 aluka Arum colocasia taro (32) pin^alu pinclaluka Dioscorea globosa Roxb. ghosadankura gho§atak! shoots Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. karlrankura karira shoots Capparis aphylla Roth. caper komala-tinduga immature tinduka Diospyros embryop- i ter is Pers. varunankura varuna shoots Crataeva Raxburghii vaclankura vaja shoots Ficus bengalensis banyan nimbankura nimba shoots Melia azadirachta Linn. margosa 1 Sometimes called vajra-taru. 2 The ashes are said to yield natron. 3 This is explained as padmini-kanda and is perhaps equivalent to the nali of some Digambara lists. 4 Also called bhramara-vrtya. 5 An ananta-kaya in its early stages but not when mature. 6 Said to be so called because pigs are used to discover it. 7 Today this word tends to be given the meaning of ‘potato’. n6 JAINA YOGA The unnumbered ananta-kayas not included in the standard list of thirty-two are mentioned as early as the Pravacana-saroddhara. Hemacandra , 1 though he does not adopt the verses quoted above, gives virtually the same enumeration of the ananta-kayas. Of the thirty-two he omits viralika , vamsa-karilla, garjaraka , lavanaka , khelluda, bhumi-rasa , and tanka-vastala ; however, he mentions also five edible roots: grnjana , mudgara , palasa-kanda , hasti-kanda , and manusya-kanda . These Svetambara lists suffered from the disadvantage that they were not exhaustive and named only a few of those ananta-kayas in the vegetable kingdom which might conceivably serve as food. The Digambaras have preferred to abide by a general classification given in a verse of the Mulacara z from which examples can be drawn at will : miiT ' agga-pora-bia saha taha khanda-kandha-bia-ruha sammucchima yd bhaniya patteyananta-kaya ya (1) reproducing from the root (; mula-bija ), e.g. ardraka , haridra ; (2) „ „ „ tip (agra-bija), e.g. ketaki ( Pandanus odoratissimus Willd.) ; (3) » „ „ nodules ( parva-bija ), e.g. iksu (sugar- cane), vetra ; (4) „ „ ,, branches (sakha-bija) ; (5) 5 ) ,, ,, stem (skandha-bija),e.g.palasa > sallakr ) ( 6 ) „ ,, ,, tubers ( kanda-bija ), e.g. stir ana , pin- dala, palandu (onion) ; (7) » j> ,> seed (bija-ruha), e.g. godhiima, Mi; ( 8 ) spontaneously generated (sammiirchima). 2 These plants, which are jointly inhabited by many jivas, have a common source of nourishment and when one perishes the many perish. The concepts underlying the category of the ananta-kayas have been convincingly explained by J. F. Kohl , 4 who notes that the Jaina concept is based on a thorough insight into plant physiology and morphology as is shown by the recognition of the role of roots and stems in the storage of reserves for future generations. 1 YJ? iii, 44-46. a Miilacara , zi 3. 3 SDhA v. 174; Lafi-sarrihitd, ii. 79 ff. 4 J. F. Kohl, op. cit, and ‘Einige Bemerkungen zur Zahlensymbolik und zum Animismus im botanischen System der Jaina-Kanon* in the Kirfel-F estscli rift (Bonn, 1955), pp. 1Z5-35. ( 13C 7 ) THE PROFESSIONS As already noted the bhogopabhoga-vrata has two aspects: it may refer to food or to occupation. The fifteen trades 1 forbidden under this head are given in the Upasaka-dasah ; they form a purely Svetambara category, being unnoticed, for example, in the Tattvartha-siitra. Asadhara 2 alone among Digambara writers has included them in his work in an evident borrowing from Hemacandra. The enumeration is as follows : (1) livelihood from charcoal ( angara-karman ); (2) livelihood from destroying plants (vana-karmari) ; (3) livelihood from carts (sakata-karman) ; 3 (4) livelihood from transport fees ( bhataka-karman ); (5) livelihood from hewing and digging (sphota-karman); (6) trade in animal by-products (da?ita-vanijya) ; (7) trade in lac and similar substances (laksa-vanijya) ; (8) trade in alcohol and forbidden foodstuffs ( rasa-vanijya ) ; (9) trade in men and animals ( kesa-vanijya ) ; (10) trade in destructive articles ( visa-vanijyd ); ( 1 1) work involving milling (yantra-pidana) ; (12) work involving mutilation (nirlanchana) ; (13) work involving the use of fire ( davagni-dana ) ; (14) work involving the use of water (sarah- 4 o$ana); (15) work involving breeding and rearing ( asati-posana ). The designations remain virtually the same in all the literature but there are some noticeable divergencies in interpretation. 1. Angara-karman. For Haribhadra 4 this is the ‘making, buying, and selling of charcoal’. Besides charcoal-burning this includes all occupations involving the use of kilns in which the six forms of living organisms ( saj-jiva-nikaya ) may perish. Under this head come therefore the smelting of iron, the firing of pottery, the refining of gold or silver, the making of bricks and tiles, the 1 These occupations are noticeably similar to those prohibited for a brahmin who maintains himself as a sudra. See Yajnavalkya-smrti, iii. 36-43. 3 SDhA v. 21-23. 3 Hoernle rightly noted that the third forbidden trade is apparently duplicated by the fourth. The acaryas are, however, unanimous in the explanation given and offer no support at all to his suggestion ‘livelihood with clothes*. See UD ii. 29. 4 Av (H), p. 839 a. ii8 JAINA YOGA construction of ovens for roasting chick-peas and other pulses, and in general any working in metals such as tin, copper, brass, bell- metal, or lead. 1 2. Vana-karman. Haribhadra 2 explains this as ‘the purchase of a stand of trees and the felling and sale of the timber’. Hema- candra 3 * defines it as the sale of timber, cut or uncut, and of the leaves, shoots and fruits of plants, whether cut or uncut. It also applies to the making of flour from grains and pulses by grinding between two stones (sila and sila-putraka) or by pounding in a mill (gharatta)*. It is in the destruction of vanaspati-kayas that the offence lies. 3. Sakata-karman. This includes the construction and sale of carts to be drawn by animals and the driving of them, whether done by oneself or at one’s instigation. The ban on such occupa- tions would apply equally to the work of a wheelwright. Such trades are sinful’ because the use of a cart involves the harnessing and beating of the draught beasts and the crushing of living or- ganisms by the animals’ hooves and under the wheels as they move. 5 4. B h A? aka- K arm an. ‘The conveying of merchandise in one’s own vehicle or hiring out of draught animals to others for the same purpose’ seems to be the original meaning. 6 Hemacandra 7 defines as ‘making a livelihood by carting goods in vehicles or on horses, oxen, buffaloes, camels, mules, or asses’. The same de- struction of life as in the preceding case would be liable to occur. 5. Sphota-karman. For Haribhadra 8 this is the cultivation of the soil with a plough or digging-stick. By Hemacandra’s 9 time the concept has been considerably expanded. He understands it to include the excavating of artificial pools, tanks, and wells, the ploughing of fields, the quarrying of rocks, and shaping of stone. Particularly in the work of cultivation the earth is mercilessly torn up and not only ar tprthm-kayas destroyed but also vanaspati-kayas and trasa-jivas. Asadhara 10 adds a further concept: the making and selling of fireworks. Devendra 11 would also include under this head the grinding of grains and pulses into flour (which is more generally held to fall under yantra-pidand) and the mining of salt. 1 Y^iii. 102. 4 Ibid. 104. 7 Yg iii. 105. 10 SDhA v. 21, 2 Av (H), p. 8296. 5 SDhA v. 21. 8 Av (H), p. 8296. 11 &rDK, pt, ii, p. 108. 3 YS iii. 103. 6 Av (H), p. 8296. 9 YS iii. 106. THE PROFESSIONS ii 9 6. D an T A- van I j Y a. Haribhadra, 1 quoting the Avasyaka Curni , explains that traders bargain for ivory with the jungle tribes, who then hunt and kill elephants on the understanding that the dealers will come back and purchase it from them. They also make similar arrangements with fishermen for conch-shells. By buying products thus obtained from the slaughter of living beings they are directly provoking that slaughter. While Abhayadeva 2 appears to confine the notion of danta to the by-products of the elephant Hema- candra 3 explains that danta (ivory) is an upalaksana to indicate any animal by-products such as tail-hairs of yaks, claws of owls, bones i.e. shells of conches, pelts of antelopes or down of geese. Deven- dra 4 adds to this list the scent glands of musk deer. 7. Laicsa-vanijya. Again here laksd is an upalaksana de- signed to include red arsenic ( manah-iild ), indigo, borax (; tahkana :), dhataki , s and other substances, which have in common the prop- erty of serving as dyestuffs or colorants. Devendra 4 mentions too in this connexion yellow orpiment. The objections to the use of and trade in them are based on various grounds. Red arsenic and borax as poisons would properly belong under visa-vanijya ; the collection of red lac involves the destruction of endless numbers of tiny insects; dhataki is reprehended because alcohol can be made from its bark and flowers and because its resin is full of insects ; and the cultivation of indigo is said to be inseparable from the destruction of living beings. 6 8. Rasa-vAnijya, From the Amsyaka Curni 7 it would seem that originally the reference here was to the manufacture, sale, and consumption of alcohol, which is described as leading to brawling, squabbling, and murder. But for Hemacandra 8 rasa in the sense of alcohol becomes an upalaksana to include honey, fat (obtained from meat), and butter, in other words the substances prohibited under the mula-guna category. Devendra 4 adds a ban on trade in meat, milk, curds, and ghee. 9. Kesa-vanijya. This is explained as trade in creatures that have hair. Haribhadra 1 understands by this the buying of slave girls in a place where they are cheap and selling them elsewhere to make a profit, w r hich is reprehensible because it implies restricting 1 Av (H), p. 829 b. 2 P (A) 22 (p. 35)* 3 YS iii. 107. 4 grDK, pt. ii, p. 108. 5 Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.' 6 Yg iii. 108. 7 Ibid. 109. 8 Av Cu, pt. ii, p. 297. i2o JAINA YOGA the liberty of others. Hemacandra 1 distinguishes carefully be- tween this occupation, which affects living beings, human or , animal, and danta-mrtijya, which concerns only parts of animals. When bought and sold, animals are bound to suffer from beating and tying up and from hunger and thirst. 10. Visa-vanijya. This implies a ban on trade in poisons such as aconite, weapons such as swords, mechanical devices such as norias, iron implements such as spades and ploughs, all of which are potentially dangerous to life. 2 Hemacandra includes here yellow orpiment, which Devendra 3 more logically places under laksa-vanijya, 11. Yantra-pidana. This is deemed to be the operation of mills and presses for crushing sugar-cane and for expressing oil from sesamum seed, mustard seed, and castor-oil beans as well as the ‘crushing’ of water in norias. The destruction of life thereby provoked is so great that a popular saying ( laukika ) affirms that an oil-press is as evil as ten slaughterhouses. 4 Devendra 5 includes here all trade in such articles as grindstones, pestles, and mortars. 12 . Nirlanchana. Haribhadra 6 understands by this the gelding of bulls and other animals. Hemacandra 7 extends the meaning to cover the branding, docking, nose-piercing, and cutting off of the ears and dewlaps of livestock. 13. Davagni-dana. Haribhadra 8 interprets this on the basis of the Avasyaka Curni as ‘setting fire to the meadows as is the custom in Uttarapatha, so that later on, when the rains come the grass may grow lushly’. Hemacandra 9 ‘offers three explanations: either the careless starting of woodland fires by foresters; or the kindling of fires out of piety in the dipotsava festival for a man’s future weal at the hour of his death ; or the system of predatory cultivation described by Haribhadra. In all cases there is very great loss of life. 14. Sarah-^osai^a. This is explained as drawing off the water from lakes, tanks, and watercourses so that they dry up and can be sown with crops; thus all forms of aquatic life are destroyed. 9 15. Asati-posana. For Haribhadra 10 this means the rearing 1 Y$ iii. 109. 2 Ibid. no. 3 &rDK, pt. ii, p. 108. + Yg iii. m. s SrDK, pt. ii, p. 108. 6 Av (H), p. 8296. 7 Y£ iii. 112. 8 Av (H), p. 830a. 9 Y$ iii. 114. 10 Av (H), p. 830a. THE PROFESSIONS 121 of girls for prostitution as is the custom in the Gauda country, Hemacandra 1 supplements this to include the breeding and keep- ing of destructive animals and birds such as parrots, mynahs, peacocks, cocks, cats, dogs, and monkeys. Devendra 3 adds the further idea of rearing eunuchs. Although the Digambaras have not inherited the tradition of the fifteen forbidden trades they enforce some similar interdictions under other heads. In almost every text, for example, the ban on the keeping of destructive animals and birds is included in the himsa-pradana division of anartha-danda which also embraces everything that is understood by msa-mnijya and laksd-mnijya. Samantabhadra 3 and Camundaraya* subdivide the papopadesa division of anartha-danda into klesa-vanijya (in which it would seem not unreasonable to discern a false sanskritization of a Prakrit kesa-vanijya) and tiryag-vanijya which together cover the ground of the ninth forbidden trade. The eternal dilemma of Jainism in laying down an ethos for the layman has been well put by A^adhara. The lay estate, he says, can- not exist without activity and there can be no activity without the taking of life; in its grosser form this is to be avoided sedulously but the implicit part of it is hard to avoid. It follows that at least the keeping of animals and contact with any destructive implements are to be eschewed . 5 At the same time certain Digambara milieux have undoubtedly widened the sphere of occupations open to a believing Jaina and may have consciously rejected some of the interdictions described above. The Adi-pnranap for instance, makes provision for a man belonging to a caste which bears arms to retain them if essential to his livelihood. In general, however, Digambaras and &vetambaras agree in admitting only a limited number of ways of earning one’s living: but acaryas of the school of Jinasena 7 mention various forms of vartta defined as ‘the pursuit of a profession in a pure way’ which is itself regarded as one of the six daily karmans. The later Svetam- baras from Ratna^ekhara 8 onwards generally refer to seven licit npayas : 1 Y& Hi. 1 13. 2 SrDK, pt. ii, p. 108. 3 RK iii. 30. 4 CS, p. 9. s SDhA iv. 12. 6 MP xxxviii. 125. 7 e.g. CS, p. 20. 8 Sraddlia-vidhi , p. 90. 0 737 K I2Z JAINA YOGA &VETAMBARA Digambara (1) vanijya (trade) (2) vidya (practice of medicine) (3) krsi (agriculture) (4) silpa (artisanal crafts) (5) pasupalya (animal husbandry) (6) seva (service of a ruler) (7) bhiksa (mendicancy) vanijya mad (clerical occupations) krsi silp a-kar man asi (military occupations) The Svetambara list is apparently designed to indicate a sequence of desirability; trade is the best means of getting one’s living whilst begging is the worst: 1 it represents a last resort for the blind and the crippled. Vidya covers astrology and divination as well as chemistry and perfumery. For krsi the late Digambara work the Traivarnikacara 2 suggests in preference to tilling the soil a form of mStayage in which a Jaina business man would provide oxen, seed, and implements for others to use. Five typical actions symbolizing the round of daily duties in the home are grouped together and styled the ‘slaughter-houses’ (suna) because they inevitably result in the destruction of living organisms. The following verse detailing them is quoted in Pra- bhacandra’s commentary on the Ratna-karanda : 3 khandani pesanl culli uda-kumbhah pramarjani panca-suna grhasthasya tena moksam na gacchati. These siinas which impede the path to moksa are eliminated, says A^adhara, 4 by almsgiving to ascetics, and in fact when they are mentioned in the texts it is always under the head of dana . The enumeration is as follows : (i) pounding (khandani, kuttani) symbolized by the pestle and mortar; (ii) grinding ( pesani ) symbolized by the hand-mill ; (iii) cooking (cidli) symbolized by the fire-place; (iv) cleansing (uda-kumbha) symbolized by the water-pot; (v) sweeping (pramarjani) symbolized by the broom. The five sunas so styled seem to be peculiar to the Digambaras, being mentioned by Samantabhadra, Asadhara, and Medhavin but the enumeration can hardly be strange to the ^vetambaras, and 1 AU i. 58. * TrA vii. 108. 3 RK iv. 23. 4 SDhA v. 49. THE PROFESSIONS 123 in fact, the Nava-pada-prakarana in a quotation 1 mentions five harmful actions from which a layman who keeps the vratas must refrain: kandana, pisana, randhana, dalana, pay ana. The first three correspond exactly to the first three sunas but then dalana appears to duplicate pisana andpayanato repeat randhana\ and an embryo- nic version of the sunas seems here to have been inserted under the bhogopabhoga-vrata. In the same connexion Ratnasekhara 2 in the fifteenth century quotes a verse almost identical with that given in Prabhacandra’s commentary, and the sunas are mentioned by Caritrasundara 3 amongst the forms of arambha. THE ANARTHA-DANDA-VRATA The vow to abstain from harmful activities that serve no useful purpose covers a range of rather disparate topics and overlaps to some extent with the ahimsa-vrata and the bhogopabhoga-vrata, and even with the mrsopadesa aticara of the satya-vrata and the para-vimha-karana aticara of the brahma-vrata. Four types of anartha-danda are listed in the canon and maintained by the ^vetambaras and to these the Digambaras, perhaps drawing on the definitions of mithydtva , have added a fifth. The five are : (i) evil brooding (apadhyand ) ; (ii) purposeless mischief ( pramadacarita ) ; (iii) facilitation of destruction (himsd-praddna ) ; (iv) harmful counsel (papopadeia) ; (v) faulty reading (duh-sruti). All the &vetambara authorities, except Siddhasena Ganin and Siddhasena Suri, give the list of four (without duh-sruti). The Tattvartha-sutra does not notice any varieties of anartha-danda but the commentator Pujyapada* mentions the above five and they are found in the sravakacaras from Samantabhadra 5 onwards. (i) ApadhyAna. The older term for this apadhyanacarita ‘action motivated by evil brooding* is not found outside the canonical texts. Abhayadeva 6 seems to understand in this connexion 1 NPP 75 (p. 326). 2 Ratnasekhara on Srdddha-pratikramana-sutra, 22. 3 AU iii. 23. 4 T (P) vii. 21. 5 RK iii. 29. 6 P (A) 23 (p. 36). 124 JAINA YOGA ‘business worries’. (‘When should the merchant caravan set out ? What goods should it carry? Where should it go ? When would be the right time to buy and to sell? &c.’) But already in the Nava- pada-prakarana Devagupta 1 has introduced the idea of arta- dhyana and raudra-dhyana whether expressed in an unwholesome desire (‘Would that I might win a kingdom or great wealth, or be exempt from old age and death ! Would that my enemy might die !’) or the satisfaction felt when that desire is fulfilled (‘How glad I am that my enemy is dead!’). This interpretation of apadhyana as arta-dhyana and raudra-dhyana is established by Hemacandra 2 and maintained by his successors. The generalized Digambara view is virtually the same : it is defined by Pujyapada and Camundaraya 3 * as ‘caressing the ideas of vanquishing, killing, imprisoning, mutilat- ing, and despoiling others’. However, an early text, the Dvada - sanuprek$aS considers it to refer to ‘talking of the faults of others, coveting the riches of others, lusting after the wives of others, and watching the disputes of others’. For Amrtacandra 5 it implies thinking about battles, conquests, hunting, adultery, and theft. Asadhara , 6 however, adopts Hemacandra’s explanation. (ii) Pramadacarita. Devagupta 7 understands by this the failure to cover with a cloth liquids such as oil, ghee, or molasses, for example, or addiction to vices such as alcoholism and gambling. Ya^odeva 8 and Abhayadeva refer expressly to ‘hurt caused through sloth’. To the five pramadas normally listed Hemacandra 9 adds a further wide range of purposeless activities to be avoided: watching dancing displays or theatrical representations or listening to con- certs out of curiosity (i.e. when these do not treat of a religious theme) ; study of the hama-iastras ; dicing ; games played in pools and watercourses (jala-krida) ; gathering flowers ; watching cock- fights or other combats of animals ; playing with swings ; and the maintaining of inherited enmities. To sleep the whole night is only permissible when one is exhausted by illness or by a journey. These indications of Hemacandra have been largely developed and ex- panded by Asadhara , 10 but not under the head of anartha-danda . Pramadacarita he defines as the profitless destruction of prthvi- kayas , vayu-kayas , tejah-kayas, and ap-kayas by such actions as 1 NPP 84. 2 YS iii. 75 - 3 CS, p. 9. + KA 344- 5 PASU 141. 6 SDhA v. 9. 7 NPP 84. 8 P (Y) 23 (p. 89). 0 YS iii. 78-80. 10 SDhAv. 10-11. THE ANARTHA-DANpA-VRATA 125 digging the ground, obstructing the wind, quenching fire with water, irrigating a field, or felling a tree ; and under this head he would condemn too all unnecessary travelling. This is in fact the Digambara tradition inherited from Pujyapada and Camundaraya, whilst Karttikeya and Amrtacandra use very similar terms. It is to be noted that Hemacandra 1 groups under the head of pramada - carita those negligent and irreverent actions within a Jaina temple which are later called aiatanas , (iii) Himsa-pradana. Haribhadra and succeeding writers 3 explains that it is improper to furnish means of destruction — weapons, fire, or poison to another person whether or not he is under the influence of anger at the time. Hemacandra 3 elaborates this statement by saying that carts, ploughs, swords, bows, pestles, mortars, bellows, or similar objects should not be supplied to another person unless a question of being helpful ( daksinyavisaye ) is involved, since himsa-pradana to a son or other relative is almost unavoidable. Hemacandra’s definition has been taken over by Asadhara; the more general Digambara version is that of Pujyapada and Camundaraya : 4 ‘the supplying of poison, weapons, fire, rope, whips, staves, and similar objects’, whilst Samantabhadra 5 speaks also of chains, swords, axes, and spades. In all these interpretations there are of course no differences except of detail. Karttikeya , 6 however, includes under this head the keeping of destructive animals such as cats and all trade in such materials as iron or lac. (iv) Papopadesa. Haribhadra , 7 who etymologizes papa as that which precipitates (■ patayati ) into hell, regards this as ‘instruction in an evil trade’, citing such expressions as ‘plough the fields’ or ‘break in the oxen’ as unbefitting a Jaina layman. In general papopadesa 8 is held to refer to the inevitable but still reprehensible operations of agriculture, but Devagupta 9 includes under it the notion of any advice to marry or procreate. Hemacandra 10 gives a number of additional examples : ‘The rains have come, seed time is at hand, so plough the fields’, ‘geld the stallions’, ‘set fire to the forest in the hot season’. Like himsa-pradana , papopadesa cannot be avoided when a question of being helpful is involved, but it 1 Yg iii. 81. 2 Av(H), p. 8306. 3 Y6 iii. 77- ♦ CS, p. 10. 5 RK iii. 31. 6 KA 347* 7 Av(H), pt. ii, p. 830 b\ patayati narakadav Ui papain . This is more compre- hensible if put back into the Prakrit from which it must have been taken: paei narayaie ttipavam. 8 Av (H), p. 8306. » NPP 84. “ YS Hi. 76. ia6 JAINA YOGA should never be given out of mere garrulity, Samantabhadra, 1 followed by Camundaraya 2 (and by Medhavin), recognizes four types of it: (а) talk of buying slaves cheap to sell them dear elsewhere (klesa-vanijya ) ; (б) talk of buying beasts cheap to sell them dear elsewhere (tiryag-vanijya ) ; (c) giving word to trappers, hunters, or fowlers of the presence of beasts and birds (vadhakopadesa) ; (d) giving advice to cultivators which involves destruction of prthvikayas , tejah-kayas , vayu-kayas, and ap-kayas ( aram - bhakopadesa). Pujyapada 3 defines it as advice which stimulates others to pursue harmful activities unnecessarily. Asadhara 4 has widened the field of application of the term considerably to include any advice lead- ing to himsa , falsehood, or theft, or concerning methods of liveli- hood involving wrongdoing. Amrtacandra 5 insists that papopadesa should never be given to men to lead them astray in their profes- sions. (v) Du^Sruti. The standard definition of this purely Digam- bara category, that of Pujyapada, or Camundaraya, or Amjrta- candra 6 is ‘listening to, reciting, or expounding evil stories through which passion and injury are provoked’. Karttikeya 7 understands by this ‘reading kama-iastras and listening to the faults of others’. For Samantabhadra 8 it is the study of works which befoul the mind with harmful activities, worldly attachments, violence, false belief, hatred, passion, pride, and lust. The seventeenth-century com- mentator Prabhacandra 9 offers as examples of texts on false belief those dealing with doctrines such as the Advaita. Asadhara 10 adopts Samantabhadra’s view and stigmatizes as examples of mind- defiling works the Vatsyayana-kama-sutra on kama, the Lataka on himsa , the Vartta-niti on parigraha , the Vira-katha on sahasa, the Brahmadvaita on mithyatva , the Vasi-karana-tantra on raga, and on mada such texts as exalt the brahmin’s place in the caste system. The aticaras of this mata , according to the Svetambara version, 1 RK ili. 30. 2 CS, p. 9. 3 T (P) vii, ai. 4 SDhA v. 8. 5 PASU 142. 6 Ibid. 145. 7 KA 348- 8 RK iii. 33. 0 Ibid. 30. 10 SDhA v. 9. THE ANARTHA-DATOA-VRATA 127 are listed below with an indication of the category of anartha-danda of which they are held to be infractions : (i) libidinous speech ( kandarpa ) pramadacarita (ii) buffoonery (kautkucya) pramadacarita (iii) garrulity (maukharya) papopadeia (iv) bringing together harmful implements (samyuktadhikarana) himsa-pradana (v) superfluity of luxuries ( upabhoga-pari - bhogatireka ) pramadacarita The Digambara lists differ on one important point: the fourth aticara is given as asamiksyadhikarana, generally interpreted as ‘inconsiderate action’. Haribhadra, in the Dharma-hindu 1 , has pre- ferred this more readily intelligible form, which is none the less an innovation of the Tattvartha-sutra. Whether this stems from a conscious rationalization or is the fruit of a textual corruption can only be a matter for speculation. Somadeva 2 has a quite personal version of the aticaras of this vrata : upadesad vaiicana-pravartana (practice of deceit on instructions), arambha-pravartana (practice of harmful activity on instructions), himsa-pravartana (practice of violence on instructions), bharadikya (overloading of animals), adhika-klesa (inflicting much suffering on them). (i) Kandarpa. The Tattvartha-bhasya 3 defines this as ‘indecent language and jesting associated with concupiscence’. Siddhasena Ganin 3 develops this: language which is provoked by lust or in which the main element is lust; it is accompanied by move- ments of the mouth, lips, eyes, and eyebrows to arouse laughter.’ Haribhadra 4 accepts the first element of this definition and adds that tradition prescribes that it is unbecoming for a Jaina layman to guffaw loudly; if laugh he must, he should confine himself to a slight titter. Abhayadeva, Ya^odeva, Municandra, and Siddhasena Suri take the same view and Hemacandra 5 adds a further comment that a sravaka should say nothing to provoke infatuation (mohodreka) in himself or others. For Devendra 6 kandarpa is no more than roisterous laughter. In the Digambara definition 7 kandarpa is coarse (< asista ) language associated with laughter resulting from excessive raga provoked by the rise of caritra-moha. 1 DhB iii. 33. 2 Handiqui, p. 269. 3 T (S) vii, 27 (p. 112). 4 Av(H), p. 8306. 5 YS iii. 115. 6 SrDK, p. 112. 7 CS, p. 10. lz8 JAINA YOGA (ii) KautkOCYA. The Prakrit kukkuia is also sanskritized as kaukucya . The commentators prefer to etymologize it as kut (in the sense of a pejorative particle) — kulsitam — kucati; and explain it as ‘spasmodic contractions (sahkocana) of the eyebrows, eyes, nose, lips, hands, and feet whilst making various sorts of funny movements ’. 1 Haribhadra again cites the traditional statement that a sravaka ought not to speak in such a way as to make other people laugh, and he is followed by all the £vetambara acaryas. The Dig- ambaras consider this aticara to be ‘vulgar speech accompanied by laughter and by undesirable gesticulation ’. 2 (iii) Maukharya. Siddhasena Ganin 3 holds this to be speech that is vulgar, prolix, nonsensical ( asambaddha ), and impertinent (mukhara being an epithet applicable to anyone who speaks without due consideration). That is the general $vetambara view. The Digambaras define it as ‘constant purposeless talking through self- conceit ’. 4 (iv) Samyuktadhikarana*. The traditional Svetambara in- terpretation is unvarying: the keeping together of any two objects {adhikarana — etymologized as ‘that by which one’s Simon is guided to an evil fate’), generally implements or parts of implements, used for any of the activities {arambha) of daily life which inevitably involve destruction of jivas . s If they are kept apart there may be some reduction quantitatively in arambha as the person wishing to use them may be dissuaded from doing so if they are not immedi- ately available. Typical examples of such linked adhikaranas are pestle and mortar, plough and coulter, cart and yoke, bow and arrows. Siddhasena Ganin 6 gives a rather similar interpretation to the asamiksy adhikarana of the Tattvartha-sutra , mentioning the supplying of grindstones ( sila-putraka ), mill-stones (godhuma- yantraka-sila ), or sickles ( datra ), but noting the Digambara defini- tion ‘excessive and improper use of an object without consideration for the aim in view’. For the same term in the Dharma-bindu? Municandra offers a purely Svetambara explanation. Pujyapada’s 8 definition is practically identical with that of Siddhasena but there is' no identification of the harmful objects. With Camundaraya 9 the concept is more complicated: asamiksy adhikarana may be of three kinds: mental, vocal, or physical. Thinking of unprofitable 1 Av (H), p. 83 o&. 4 CS, p. 10. 7 DhB iii. 33, 2 CS, p. 10. s Av (H), p. 832a. 8 T (P) vii. 32. 3 T (S) vii. 37 (p. 1 13). 6 T (S) vii. 27. 9 CS, p. 10. THE ANARTHA-DAtfPA-VRATA 139 literary productions would be an example of the first type; the second would cover the recounting of purposeless stories or indeed any form of the spoken word through which pain was caused to others; whilst the third would include the cutting, breaking, bruising, or throwing away purposelessly of any sentient or non- sentient leaves, flowers, or fruit. Asadhara 1 sees in this offence ‘the taking more of anything than is needed for use’. In the pratikramana texts there is a special avowal of offences under this head : weapons, fire, pestles, mechanical devices ( yantra ), grass, wood, mantras , roots (mula), drugs ( bhaisajya ) given or caused to be given to any person. Devendra 2 * explains yantra to mean such things as carts ; grass may be used to clean maggots from wounds or for besoms, and wood for staves or for norias ; whilst mula means roots such as naga-damani 2 used, for example, to assuage fever or to procure abortion. (v) Upabhoga-paribhogatiriktita. Haribhadra* records a traditional teaching on moderation in the use of upabhogas : if one man takes an excessive amount of oil and myrobalan for his toilet then other people attracted by this luxury go to the bathing tank and many bathe who would not otherwise have done so; and as a result many ap-kayas and small aquatic creatures perish unneces- sarily. Excessive indulgence in betel and flower garlands brings about similar profitless destruction. Accordingly a man who desires to bathe should either do so at home or, failing that, rub oil and myrobalan on to his head at home and, when they are com- pletely dissolved should go to the tank and wash by taking up water in his hands. Abhayadeva, Ya^odeva, Municandra, and Hema- candra repeat the same view. Siddhasena , 5 in his commentary on the Tattvartha-sutra, explains that bathing and the use of orna- ments as well as the consumption of food and drink and unguents must be on a moderate scale and adapted to one’s needs. The Digambaras 6 regard this aticara merely as the accumulation of upabhogas and paribhogas beyond the limit of one’s needs. Asad- hara , 7 who calls this transgression sevarthadhikata , prefers Hema- candra’s explanation. Here again the pratikramana? texts enjoin the confession of faults committed in connexion with bathing, unguents (udvartana), 1 SDhA v. 1 2. 2 Devendra on Sraddha-pratikramaya-sutra, 24. 3 Artemisia vulgaris Linn. * Av(H), p. 831a. 5 T (S) vii. 27. 6 CS, p. 11. 7 SDhA v. 12. 8 Smddha-pratikramaiia-sutra, 25. i 3 o JAINA YOGA cosmetics ( varnaka ), cooling pastes ( vilepana ), sounds, shapes, tastes, smells, clothes, couches, and ornaments. The washing of the body after anointing should not be done at a spot where there are trasa-jwas , nor at a time when there are many sampatima creatures abroad, nor with unfiltered water. Unguents should not be dropped in the dust where they may become infested with maggots only to be eaten later by dogs or trodden under foot. Varnakas such as musk and in vilepanas such as sandal-paste or saffron may also give rise to sampatima creatures. Under the head of sahcla the fol- lowing are reprehended : the sounds of musical instruments when listened to out of mere curiosity, and the noise made to arouse house lizards at night so that they come out to eat flies. Similarly undesirable are the shapes of women viewed at theatrical per- formances or described to others, and the savour of tasty dishes de- scribed to others to increase their gourmandise. One point emerges clearly from all the texts : it is because un- necessary evil actions (nirarthaka-papa) bind on additional karma that anartha-danda is to be at all costs avoided. But here a careful distinction has to be made between what is artha and what is anartha. By artha , for example, Haribhadra 1 understands ‘the practical interests of the family’. Devagupta’s 2 definition is more explicit: whatever harmful action is done for the sake of religion (such as building a temple), or for the bodily organs ( indriya ) (such as eating nourishment or taking betel), or in order to produce food (such as farming) is artha ; any similar action for other ends — such as the cutting down of creepers or the killing of lizards is anartha. Certain writers tend to stigmatize as a grave form of pramada- carita some of the offences commonly called the vyasanas , particu- larly gambling and the frequentation of prostitutes. This point is made particularly by Devagupta. For Amrtacandra , 3 too, gambling takes precedence over all other forms of anartha and leads to lying and stealing. Somadeva 4 attempts a general definition of the various elements comprised under the term anartha-danda. It would include all acts done to spite, sadden, or denigrate others, or through which others are hurt or deprived of liberty. More specifically it refers to the keeping of harmful animals and the provision of harmful objects. 1 SrPr 290. 2 N p P g 3> 3 Npp g 4 4 PASU 146. 5 Handiqui, p. 269. THE ANARTHA-DAWA-VRATA 131 A narrower view is that of Vasunandin : 1 the observance of the anartha-danda-wata implies a ban on the selling of iron rods or snares, the keeping of destructive animals, and measuring with false balances. As has already been noted the main differences in the scope of this vow, as understood by ^vetambaras and Digambaras, are to be found in the addition by the Digambaras of duh-iruti to the four categories listed in the Upasaka-dasah and in the replacement of samyuktddhikarana by asamiksyadhikarana. The ban on the keeping of such creatures as destroy other lives — cats, dogs, mongooses, cocks, vow only by the parrots, peacocks, and mynahs — seems to be introduced by the Digambaras, almost all of whom insist on this. Amitagati 2 appears to have included under the anartha-danda - vrata certain elements which elsewhere are covered by the bhogo- pabhoga-vrata. Thus he stipulates that iron, lac, indigo, saffron, bees-wax (madana), hemp, weapons, pickles ( sandhanaka ), stirana- kanda> flowers, curds that have been left for two days, rice that has sprouted or fermented, water-melons, and drona flowers are to be eschewed. THE S AM AYIKA- VRATA For all the deary as the samdyika is at the same time the first siksd- vrata (except for Asadhara and Samantabhadra, who make it the second, and for Vasunandin, who omits it altogether) and the third pratima. At the same time it is one of the six avasyakas and, to men- tion a category which is outside the sphere of this survey, one of the five caritras. As an avasyaka it belongs to the life of the layman when it is temporary (itvarika) and to that of the monk when it is lifelong (ydvat-kathita). Two explanations of the term are usually current. For Sidd- hasena Ganin 3 it is an exercise in samaya etymologized as the attainment (ay a) of equanimity or tranquillity of mind (samet). Pujyapada 4 holds samaya to be ‘the process of becoming one (ekatva-gamana), of fusion of the activities of body, mind, and speech with the atman\ and the practice designed to achieve this i £r (V) 21 5. 3 & (A) vi. 81-85. 3 T (S) vii. 16 (p. 91). 4 T (P) vii. 21. 132 JAINA YOGA end is the samayika. In any event the samayika in IiaribhadraV definition implies at the same time the cessation of all blameable activity and the concentration on blameless activity. The £vetambara texts give a ritual for the samayika based on the Avasyaka Ciirni, a distinction being made between the ordinary and the affluent layman. For a man of great wealth or invested with the authority of a ruler special rules are laid down in order to in- crease the prestige of the Jaina community by emphasizing the fact that he has adhered to the. sacred doctrine. In the former case the following procedure is prescribed 2 : The samayika may be performed in one’s own house or in a temple, or in a specially designed fasting-hall ( posadha-sala), or in the presence of a sadhu , or in a place where one is resting or not engaged in any activity. The individual intending to perform the rite must not be in fear of anyone or in dispute with anyone or indebted to anyone, nor should there be other cause for anxiety to sway his mind in any direction. He must, like a sadhu, observe the five samitis and the three gaptis and avoid all harmful (savadya) speech, and before picking up or setting down any object he must not neglect pratilekhana and pramarjana . 3 He should try to avoid spitting or blowing his nose, but if he cannot help doing so, should first find a bare patch of ground and carry out pratilekhana and pramarjana. Then, making obeisance to the sadhus , he is to repeat the following formula: karemi hhante samaiyam savajjairi j ogam paccakkhdmi java sahu pajju- vdsami duviham tivihenam manenam vayae kayenavi na karemi kardvemi tassa bhante padikkamdmi nindami garihami appanam vosirami. I engage, lord, in the samayika , making pratyakhydna, for as long as I worship the sadhus of harmful activities whether I have done them or caused them to be done by others; neither with mind, speech nor body will I do them or cause them to be done by others ; I confess them, lord, and reprehend and repent of 4 them, and I cast aside my past self. Each word of this formula — usually styled the samayika-sutra — is analysed in detail by the commentators. Thus the Prakrit vocative bhante is interpreted as an invocation of him ‘who makes an end to existence, to reincarnation’ ( bhavanta ). Nindami and garihami are 1 Av (H), p. 8316. * Av (H), p. 832a 3 pratilekhana is the scanning of the ground or of any object for the presence of living creatures and pramarjana the removing of such living creatures by means of a monk’s broom {raja-harana). 4 It will be recalled that garha is one of the gutias of samyaktva. THE SAMAYIKA-VRATA 133 said to have the same meaning; but the former expresses reproba- tion made in one’s own mind and the latter reprobation voiced in the presence of a guru. Pratyakhyana of course refers to harmful activities in the future, pratikramana to those already past; and it is the self which is the author of past harmful activity {samdya- yoga ) which is cast aside. 1 After reciting this formula the layman must make airyapathiki- pratikramana and then alocana. After vandana to the acaryas in order of seniority and to his preceptor he is to make pratilekhana and sit down to engage in svadhyaya. If (as happens when any of the impediments mentioned at the beginning exist) the samayika is performed in one’s own home or in the posadha-iala the question of the arrival formalities does not arise. A king or very rich man will come with camaras and chattras and regal ornaments, there will be horses and elephants and foot- soldiers and chariots in his retinue, and as he goes to the presence of the sadhu or to the temple, the common people will bow down and praise him crying, ‘Blessed is the sacred law.’ When he arrives he will lay aside the insignia of royalty and take off shoes, and sword, and diadem; and then only is he to make Jina-puja and guru-vandana. If, when he has performed the samayika , he were to go away as he came with much pomp and a great retinue it would be from the religious angle undesirable, so he departs on foot. As the sadhas cannot fittingly stand up when he arrives, since he is only a sravaka , a seat is disposed beforehand so that he may be given the honours fitting to his rank while the acaryas await him standing up. Thus the delicate question of whether or not they should rise does not present itself; and on arrival he makes the samayika and then pratikramana and then pays reverence to the sadhus. During this time he lays aside his ear-rings, signet-ring, flower garlands, betel, and outer garment, but opinions differ as to whether he should or should not take off his diadem. 2 It is reiterated in many places that in the samayika the layman becomes like an ascetic and for that reason it should be performed often. The assertion seems to stem originally from the Avasyaka - niryukti : 3 samaiyammi u kae samano iva savao havai jamha eena kdranenain bahuso samaiyam kujjd 1 Y& iii. 8a (p. Sos), 2 Av (H), p. 83 za-b; Y£ iii. 82 (pp. 508-9). 3 Av (H), p. 832ft. i 34 JAINA YOGA A similar verse is to be found in the Sravaka-prajnapti , 1 * whilst in the Pratima-pancasaka 2 the samayika is described as the layman’s highest temporary guna-sthana ; it may exert such an effect on him that he is led to renounce the world altogether. However, this assimilation of the sravaka to the yati is to a greater or less extent a feature of all the necessary rites, and even in the samayika where the identity of layman and ascetic is most nearly achieved too much stress can be laid on the comparison. Iiaribhadra 3 warns that the likeness will never be more than partial just as when refer- ence is made to a candra-mukhi stri : her face resembles the moon only in its roundness ( parimandalyd ), affability (, saumyata ), and grace ( kanti ) but differs from it in many other ways. Since the householder when he ‘empties his senses’ with mind concentrated on the Jina attains in effect to the maha-vratas at a particular point in time and space it might be supposed that he would achieve per- fect restraint and self-control (samyama). However, as Pujyapada 4 points out, the karmans and kasayas are still present so that the term maha-vrata can only be held to be used figuratively, just as caitra is said to be present everywhere in a royal household. Samantabhadra 5 envisages the layman who is performing the samayika as a monk on whom clothes have been draped, and this phrase becomes a cliche with succeeding Digambaras. Camunda- raya 6 takes the view that by overcoming the parisahas and upasargas, by maintaining silence, and by refraining from all manifestation of himsa he does in fact achieve the maha-vratas. Elsewhere, however, it is emphasized that there is no real cessation of attachment to material things or disapproval for those activities of daily life which constitute arambha. Where the sadhu has recourse to the maha-vratas the iravaka relies on the anu-vratas ; nor does the latter necessarily maintain the full ritual prescriptions, for example, those governing the use of the mukha-vastrika and rajo-harana i even during the samayika . 7 The older Svetambara texts generally lay down that the samayika should be carried out as often as possible . 8 Amongst the Digam- baras Amrtacandra 9 recommends morning and evening and whenever possible outside those times, and A^adhara 10 the night- 1 SrPr 393. 2 P (£rUP) n. 3 Av (H), p. 8336. 4 T (P) vii. 31. 5 RK iv. ia. 6 CS, p. 11, 7 &Fr 310. 8 Av (H), p. 833 b. 9 PASU 149. 10 SDhA v. 29, 135 THE SAMAYIKA-VRATA time and the end of day ; but usually the three sandhyas or links of time — dawn, noon, and sunset — are indicated as proper for the prac- tice of the rite, which should last for a minimum of one muhurta. As has already been noted, the choice of a place for its perfor- mance is, for the &vetambaras, the same as that offered for the other avasyakas, and the Pratima-pancasaka 1 even refers expressly to a communal samayika observance in the posadhci-sala. The Digam- baras lay more stress on silence and solitude : Karttikeya 2 insists on a place where there are no gnats or other disturbing insects, no babble of sounds (kalayala), and no tumult of many people; Samantabhadra 3 suggests a solitary forest clearing, a sanctuary, or one’s own home; Vasunandin 4 a temple, one’s own home, or any undefiled spot facing north or facing south ; and ASadhara 5 is con- tent merely with solitude. Svetambaras and Digambaras give the aticaras of this mat a alike : (i) misdirection of mind ( mano-duspranidhana ); (ii) misdirection of speech (vag-duspranidhana ) ; (iii) misdirection of body (kaya-duspranidhana ) ; (iv) forgetfulness of the samayika (smr ty- akarand) ; (v) instability in the samayika (anavasthita-karana). (i) Mano-duspranidhana. For Haribhadra 6 this means ‘wonder- ing whether household tasks have been rightly performed’. He quotes from the Sravaka-prajnapti 7 a verse to the effect that the samayika , when performed by a sravaka who under the influence of arta-dhyana becomes a prey to mundane anxieties, is ineffective. Siddhasena Ganin 8 explains that duspranidhdna arises when the mind is swayed by eddies of anger, avarice, deceit, pride, and envy: and this interpretation is followed by later ^vetambaras. Pujyapada and Camundaraya 9 hold that this aticdra implies a failure to sur- render the mind to meditation. (ii) Vag-duspranidhana. Haribhadra 10 defines this as the use of indecent, harsh, or hurtful language. The Srdvaka-prajnapti , 11 again repeatedly quoted on this point, lays down that is essential to speak with discretion and avoid any words that can have a harmful effect; otherwise the samayika becomes impossible. For Siddhasena Ganin 12 this aticdra amounts to confused and hesitant 1 P (SrUP) 12. * KA 353* 3 iv * 9- 4 Sr (V) 274* 5 SDhA v. 28. 6 Av (H), p. 834a. ’ grPr 313. 8 T (S) vii. 28. 9 CS, p. 11. 10 Av (H), p. 8346. 11 grPr 314. 12 T (S) vii. 28. 1 36 JAINA YOGA enunciation of the syllables and inability to comprehend the mean- ing of the text. The same view is taken by Hemacandra and by Pujyapada, Camundaraya, and Asadhara. (iii) Kaya-duspranidhana. Haribhadra 1 understands by this the failure to make pratilekhana and pramarjana of the ground and of all material objects, and to keep the hands and feet and other limbs of the body from moving, amounting to pramada in the perfor- mance of the samayika. In this connexion he speaks of making pramarjana with the soft flap of a garment. On the nature of this aticara there is general agreement among Svetambaras and Digambaras. (iv) Smrty-akarana. This is generally held to be an inability through extreme carelessness to remember when the samayika is to be performed or whether or not it has been performed. Thus since the whole of the religious life depends on mindfulness the samayika is nullified . 2 Unlike mano-duspranidhana which implies a tem- porary deviation of the mental processes this aticara can vitiate the practice of the samayika over long periods . 3 Lack of concentration is the simple Digambara definition . 4 (v) Anavasthita-karana. This is explained as a failure to observe the proper formalities in carrying out the samayika , or a readiness to give it up after a very short time, or the taking of food immediately after it is finished . 5 The Digambaras apply the designation anadara to this aticara^ explaining it as a lack of zeal in the performance of the samayika . 6 The nature of the samayika , as it is presented in the early Svetambara texts, is obscured or altered at an early date among the Digambaras, at least as an element of the lay life. The concept of a brief period of detachment from the world and its cares, of a respite from the tyranny of love and hate, is still to the fore in Pujyapada, Samantabhadra, Camundaraya, and above all Amirtacandra 7 but with this are gradually being associated, as aids to the attainment of this state of mind, elements of ritual from the other amsyakas. Thus Samantabhadra 8 prescribes for the samayika the ritual move- ments and other requirements ( avarta , pranama , yatha-jdta> 1 Av (H), p. 8346. 2 T (S) vii. 28. 3 Y§ iii. 116 (p. 577). 4 T (P) vii. 33. 5 YS iii. 116. 6 CS, p. 11. 7 PASU 148 ; RK iv. 10. The general picture is that of the sainte indifference of St. Francois de Sales. 8 RK v. 18. 137 THE SAMAYIKA-VRATA nisadya, tri-yoga-suddhi ) that form part of the vandanaka in the Svetambara canonical writings ; whilst avartas and pranamas are mentioned by Karttikeya . 1 Posture and symbol assume an increasing importance. The sanketa types of pratyakhyana offer a model for Samantabhadra 2 when he proposes that the samayika should be maintained for as long as the hair is tied up, or the fist clenched, or the garment knotted. These symbolic limits for its duration — kesa-bandha , musti-bandha , and vastra-bandha — are noted again by Camunda- raya 3 and by Asadhara . 4 Various mu dr as find a place in Amitagati’s 5 description of the rite: they include the three — Jina-mudra , yoga - mudra l, and mukta-sukti-mudra — that have been incorporated in the standard ^vetambara caitya-vandana ritual, as well as a vandana- madra in which the devotee stands with his hands clasped in the form of a half-open lotus on his stomach. Five forms of obeisance ( pranama ) are noted by Amitagati : 6 with one limb (the head), with two limbs (the hands), with three limbs (the head and hands), with four limbs (the hands and knees), and with five limbs (the head, hands, and knees). These types are fairly generally accepted and are noted by Hemacandra . 7 The third pranama is the ardhdmnata and the fifth the pancanga of the caitya-vandana ritual. There are more considerable divergencies in the recommendations for the postures to be adopted in the samayika : Karttikeya 8 mentions the paryankasana and the seated kayotsarga to which Samantabhadra 9 and Asadhara 10 add the upright kayotsarga ; Amitagati 11 envisages the padmasana^ paryankasana, virasana, and gav-asana; Camunda- raya 12 speaks of the paryankasana and makara-mukhdsana ; and Somadeva 13 notes the padmasana , virasana , and sukhasana. Kartti- keya 14 lists seven requisites for the samayika : fitting time (kala) and place (ksetra), posture ( asana ) and mood ( vilaya ), purity of mind ( manah-suddhi), of speech (vacana-suddhi), and of body (kaya- suddhi). But the most significant extraneous element which is absorbed into the samayika is the custom of making offerings. Samantabha- dra 15 envisaged the puja as an aspect of dana , but the more general trend is to associate it with the samayika , and from this stems the 1 KA 371. 4 RK iv. 8. 3 CS, p. 11. 4 SDhAv. 28. 5 3 r(A) viii. S*~S6. 6 Ibid. 63-64. 7 Yg, p. 61a. 8 KA 355 - 9 RKiv. 8. 10 SDhAv. 28. 11 Sr (A) viii. 45-48. 12 CS, p. 11. 13 Handiqui, p. 281. 14 KA 352. 15 RK iv. 30. C 787 138 JAINA YOGA injunction that it is to be performed at the three sandhyas. Even Amrtacandra 1 regards piija with prasuka substances as part of the samayika ritual whilst Vasunandin 2 comprises under this the adora- tion of the sacred doctrine, the images, and the paramesthins. The logical development is already clearly apparent in the Yaiastilaka 3 where the discussion of the samayika-vrata covers dhyana as well as every form of dravya-puja and bhava-puja. With the Svetambaras a more rigid tradition maintains the separate identity of the samayika-vrata but at the same time, as will be seen, many elements from it are incorporated into the caitya-vandana. Thus the five abhigamas of that ritual are drawn from the description of the arrival of the ruler or rich disciple desirous of performing the samayika . In fact, as with the Digam- baras, this slanting of the concept had begun at an early date. Abhayadeva , 4 in his commentary on the Pancasakas , expressly admits the possibility of performing, for example, Jina-snapana- puja during the samayika inasmuch as piija does not fall within the definition of savadya-yoga. However, samayika and caitya-vandana are still felt to be suffi- ciently distinct to receive separate treatment in the £raddha-dina- krtya. In the section devoted to the samayika Devendra notes the traditional distinction of the rich and poor disciples and the de- scription of the ritual given in the Avasyaka Curni, adding one significant detail that is of later origin. If the vocative bhante is used in the recitation of the samayika-sutra it is obligatory on the devotee, if no monk is present, to set up a sthapanacarya — a sym- bolic representation of the guru — to which adoration is offered just as the Jina image is worshipped in place of the Jina, who is for ever absent from the world. For this sthapanacarya Devendra uses the term suri . 5 The samayika is also mentioned in another passage of the Sraddha-dina-krtya where it appears to designate any worship offered in the home when, because of some impedi- ment, a man is unable to go to the temple . 6 The diminishing importance of the samayika in the lay life is manifest in the fifteenth- century Sraddha-vidhi 7 where it figures among the practices which are possible only during the leisure of the rainy season. In that connexion Ratna^ekhara comments signi- 1 PASU 155. * (V) 375, 3 Handiqui, pp. 369-83. 4 P (A) 35 (P- 38). 5 SrDK 330. 6 Ibid. 77. 7 Sraddha-vidhi, p. 158a. THE SAMAYIKA-VRATA 139 ficantly that the acceptance of the samayika is difficult for a rich man whilst the pujd is easy. A brief allusion deserves to be made to the resemblance between the desavakasika-vrata and samayika-vrata noted by some Digam- bara acaryas. Samantabhadra 1 defines the latter as the complete avoidance of those five sins which are the subject of the anu-vratas. Asadhara insists 2 that a distinction must be made between them, explaining that in the desavakasika-vrata all papa outside a tiny radius ceases whilst in the samayika-vrata for a brief moment all papa everywhere is eliminated. THE DESAVAKASIKA-VRATA In character closely related to the dig-vrata , of which it is a re- duced version in time and space, this vow is considered by the ^vetambaras to be the second of the siksa-vratas', but the Digam- baras in the main prefer to place it among the guna-vratas im- mediately after the dig-vrata. However, Samantabhadra (with Sakalalurti) and Asadhara (with Medhavin) hold it to be the first, and Karttikeya the last, of the siksa-vratas. Perhaps because considered to be basically identical with the dig-vrata the desdva- kasika-vrata is omitted by those acaryas who make sallekhana the subject of the last siksa-vrata. Abhayadeva 3 describes this vrata as an assumption for a limited time ( avakasa ) of the restrictions of place (< desa ) set forth in the dig- vrata since freedom of movement is restricted to a tiny part of the area previously measured out. Where previously the boundaries were measured in hundreds of yojanas and the restrictions were to operate for a lifetime or a year or, at the very least, for four months, it is the surroundings of one’s home and the limits of a day that are now prescribed. It is in fact a symbolic epitome of all the vratas. Its intensity, says the Sravaka-prajnapti , 4 should be contained within a small compass like the poison of the serpent’s eye. Haribhadra explains this illustration thus : at one time the serpent’s poison eye could kill at a radius of twelve yojanas but later a magician drove it away and limited its range to on tyojana. In the same way a layman 1 RK iv. 7. 3 P (A) 37. 4 SrPr 319. SDhA v. 28. I40 JAINA YOGA is to contract his harmful activities and reduce the danger caused by them by imposing narrower limits on his own ‘poison eye’ — those movements which kill living beings. For the spatial dimensions of the desavakasika-mata Siddhasena Ganin 1 prescribes a room of a house, a whole house, a village, or a township, and, as an example of its duration, the period from dusk to dawn. Other time limits suggested are a night, a day, five days, a fortnight, or for even shorter periods such as a prahara or a mukurta . 2 Spatial limitations with the Digambaras are similar. Samanta- bhadra 3 suggests as suitable boundaries a house, a merchant caravan, a village, a wood, or, in terms of measurements, one yojana. Camundaraya* proposes the suppression of all journeying except for the walk from one’s home to the bathing tank and back, Amrtacandra 5 would confine movement to a village, a street, a market, or a house. There is a tendency among later Digambaras to read into this vrata a ban on certain types of travel irrespective of limits set. Thus Medhavin 6 condemns under this head all journeying to countries where the Jaina teaching is unknown and its prescriptions not observed. In regard to time the Digambaras would seem to admit much longer periods for the observance of the desavakatika-vrata than do the Svetambaras. Samantabhadra 7 speaks of a fortnight, a month, two months, four months, six months, a year, and Karttikeya 8 mentions a year ‘or other period’. The basic idea underlying both the dig-vrata and the desavaka- Hka-mata is that if a man reduces his freedom of movement to a restricted area, small or large, his absence from all the area not comprised within the self-imposed limits will mean that he can be said to be keeping the maha-vratas , the rigid vows of an ascetic, in that wider area ; whilst at the same time constant awareness of these spatial limits will result in added vigilance in the observation of the ann-vratas within them. All the sravakacara texts record the aticaras of this vow in the same form: (i) having something brought from outside (anayana-prayoga) (ii) sending a servant for something from outside ( presya ~ prayoga ) ; (iii) communicating by making sounds ( sabdanupata ) ; 1 T (S) vii. 16 (p. 90). 2 Y& iii. 117. 3 RK. iv. 3. 4 cs » P* 9 - 5 PASTJ 139. 6 gr(M) vii. 40. 7 RK iv. 4. 8 KA 367. THE DESAVAKASIKA-VRATA 141 (iv) communicating by making signs ( rupanupatd ) ; (v) communicating by throwing objects ( bahya-pudgala - prdksepa). (i) Anayana-prayoga. This would seem from the evidence of the texts to mean ‘getting somebody to take a message in order to obtain something from outside one’s self-imposed limits ’. 1 ITemacandra 2 explains that the essence of the vrata — the avoidance of harm to living organisms through moving to and fro outside the designated area — is violated even by causing someone else to make such movements on one’s behalf. The Digambaras style this aticara simply anayana and render as ‘giving orders to have some- thing brought from outside the limits ’. 3 (ii) Presya-prayoga. The older $vetambara texts distinguish this offence from the preceding one by implying an element of compulsion : ‘giving orders to a servant to have something brought from outside ’. 1 The Digambaras interpret it as ‘causing work to be done by a servant outside one’s self-imposed limits :’ 4 in both this and in the previous aticara orders are given to an employee. (iii) ^ab dan up at A. The picture of this aticara given by the & vetambaras is more or less as follows : a man stands just inside the wall or enclosure of his house (which he has chosen as the boundary of his activity) and by making noises such as sneezing or coughing attracts the attention of people who are near at hand, and then em- ploys them on various errands . 5 The Digambaras consider that the offence consists in attracting the attention of men working outside in the hope that they will understand and do what is required of them without delay . 6 (iv) RupAnupata. This is exactly parallel to the preceding aticara except that signs and gestures are used to attract attention. (v) Pudgala-praksepa. Again there is an exact parallelism (both for Digambaras and ^vetambaras). Here clods of earth, sticks, stones, or bricks are thrown to attract attention. 1 Av (H), p. 835a. * CS, p. 9. 2 Y£ iii. 117. 5 Av (H), p. 83 $b. 3 t (P) vii. 31. e CS, p. 9. 142 JAINA YOGA THE POSADHOPAVASA-VRATA For the Prakrit posaha (corresponding to upavasatha ) there have come into existence a number of false sanskritizations pausadha , prosadha , posadha — of which the last seems to have attained the most general currency. It is commonly held to mean the parvan , the day of the moon’s periodic change and the etymologically tautological posadhopavdsa is accordingly interpreted as 'the fast on th t parvan day’. Whilst this is the only explanation admitted by some texts, by the Tattvdrtha-bhasya , l for example, elsewhere the fantasy is given free play and the posadha becomes ‘that which strengthens or fattens the religious life’, (posam pustim prakramad dharmasya dhatte posadha). 7 - For Caritrasundara it is a contraction of paramau§adha ‘the supreme medicament’. In ordinary usage of course posadha is synonymous with posadhopavdsa. There are some major divergencies between Digambaras and ^vetambaras in posadha observance. The Digambara texts ex- plicitly or implicitly indicate that the fast should continue from noon on the day preceding the posadha (the dharanaka) till noon on the following day (the paranakd) that is, for a total of forty- eight hours. The $vetambara writers, however, mention a period of twenty-four hours (aho-ratra) 2 * and some of the later authorities admit even a shorter term. 4 There are four posadha days — the catusparvi made up of as t ami, caturdasi purnima , and amavasi — in a month but some Svetambaras admit the possibility of additional days. Thus the most widespread view is that of the Tattvartha - bhdsya, 5 which names specifically the astami , caturdasi , and pancadasi of each half-month with the possibility of other optional posadha days (for which Siddhasena Ganin suggests the pratipada), and the late Acaropadcsa 6 would regard the 2nd, 5th, 8th, nth, and 14th of each parvan as posadha days. In the main, however, the texts are silent on this point. In the classifications of the doctrine th e posadha has two niches : it is the third (or for some Digambaras the second) siksa-vrata and, 1 T (S) vii. 16 (p. 93). 2 Y§ iii. 85. 3 However, it would seem that this might in practice be longer as the layman should not break his fast till he has fed the ascetics, that is, not until after the first pauru?l of the day. 4 e.g. Ratnasekhara in the Sraddha-viclhi, p. 153&. s T (S) vii. 16 (p. 93). 6 AU v. 4 - 13 . THE POSADHOPAVASA-VRATA 143 at the same time, it is the fourth pratima. It is also sometimes regarded as a form of tapas. It will be convenient to treat together any references to the posadh a, irrespective of the category to which they are assigned, and to commence by a description of the ritual as the later lovetambaras have codified it. From the canonical texts onwards the Svetambaras list four spheres of application for the posadha , which may in each case be either partial {desatas) or entire (sarvatas) : (i) In respect of food ( ahara ) : (a) partial — eating once or twice only during the period, or eating tasteless food (; nirvikrtya ) only, or taking only rice and water (acamamla), or taking only water; (b) entire — complete abstinence from the fourfold aliments. (ii) In respect of bodily care (deha-satkara) : (a) partial — omitting some aspect of the toilet such as bathing ; ( b ) entire — complete abstinence from bathing, massaging, cooling pastes, perfumes, and all other forms of care for the person. (iii) In respect of sexual intercourse ( maithuna ) : (a) partial — continence during the day only, or for a period of one or more praharas , or limitation to one or two acts of intercourse during the full period; (b) entire — complete abstinence from sexual relations, (iv) In respect of worldly occupations (vyapard): (a) partial — refraining from certain of the harmful activities of a householder ; (b) entire — complete abandonment of all activities. It would appear that it is only in regard to food that the Digambara acaryas admit the possibility of partial restraints: they insist on total abstinence in all other respects. Thus Amitagati 1 stipulates for the performance of the posadha the relinquishment of all bodily adornment ( samskara ) including garlands, perfumes, unguents, and even betel (which is generally considered as ahara), and of worldly duties, as well as a state of brahma-carya. Similarly Kart- tikeya’s 2 ruling is clear: that without complete cessation of arambha no posadhopavasa is effective. 1 3 r (A) vi, 89. 3 KA 374. 144 JAINA YOGA With regard to food there are then three possibilities : 1 (i) the best (uttama) — upavasa (a complete fast) ; (ii) the next best (madhyama) — anupavasa (a fast in which the taking of water is permitted) ; (iii) the least satisfactory (jaghany a) — eka-sthana or sakrd-bhojana (the taking of one meal a day). All these food restrictions are of course forms of pratyakhyana. There is fairly general agreement on the nature of the uttama and madhyama types but for the jaghanya type A^adhara 2 prefers acamamla (taking only rice and water) or nirvikrtya (taking only food without vikrtis) whilst Vasunandin 3 * 5 offers a choice of eka-sthana } or eka-hhakta , or aca?namla } or nirvikrtya , and Vamadeva* mentions only kanjikahara (which is equivalent to acamamla)* Pujyapada 6 and Camundaraya regard the posadhopavasa as a relinquishment of the pleasures of the five senses even of such as are afforded to the ear by sounds. Camundaraya 7 indeed etymolo- gizes the word upavasa as ‘the state in which the sense organs abide (vasanti) after reaching (upetya) quiescence’. In general it is held that the primary aim of the posadhopavasa is to enable the samayika to be properly performed : wherever it is entire there of necessity the samayika exists, where it is partial the samayika may or may not be attained. Asadhara 8 takes up from Samantabhadra the cliche that a man performing the posadha appears to onlookers as a muni on whom clothes have been draped. According to the ^vetambaras the fast, like the avasyakas in general, may be carried out in a temple, in a posadha-sala y in the presence of a sadhu , or in one’s own home. The Digambaras are generally content to say that any secluded spot is suitable but Pujyapada and Camundaraya 9 recommend a temple, or the abode of a sadhu , or one’s own fasting-room ( sva-posadhopavasa-grhd ). Somadeva 10 mentions a temple, one’s home, a hill-top, or a forest glade. The whole time should be spent in meditation ( dhyana ) or scriptural study {svadhyaya). The posadha ritual is given in considerable detail in the later 1 RKiv. 19. z SDhAv. 35. 3 £r (V) 29 2. « BhS (V) 508. 5 For an. explanation of these terms see p. 209. 6 T (P) vii. 21. 7 CS, p. la. 5 CS, p. 12. 10 Handiqui, p. 282. 8 SDhA vii. 5* ' THE POSADHOPAVASA-VRATA 145 Svetambara writings. The following description is taken from Yasovijaya 1 , who has used a number of older texts : 2 3 On th e posadha day the layman is to lay aside ornaments of gold and jewels and to remove garlands, vilepanas and varnakas and to break off all his worldly occupations. Then taking all he requires for the posadha he should go to the posadha-sala or to the presence of a sadhu, choosing a suitable piece of bare ground for defecation and micturition. If no sadhu is present he sets up a sthapanacarya after reciting the namaskara, then makes airyd-pathiki-pratikramana and recites a ksama-sramana. 2 After examining his mukha-vastrika for living organisms he again recites a ksama-sramana followed by a declaration of his intention to carry out the posadhopavasa either partially or entirely in the four kinds. After further repetitions of the ksama-sramana he performs samdyika and svadhyaya. Then he again examines his mukha-vastrika and also his clothes, and rajo- harana, and the sthapanacarya. Then he makes pratilekhana of his bedding and brushes the posadha-sala , and after airyd-pathiki- pratikramana again, engages in svadhyaya like a sadhu . He may then, if it is the proper occasion, make puja in the temple. If his posadhopavasa is not to be a complete fast (that is, if it is to be ekasana, or dcamamla, or nirvikrtya , or anupavasa) he may go home to eat or drink or else have food or drink brought to him in the posadha-sala by his servants but should not obtain his meal by begging as a sadhu would. Returning to the posadha-sala he follows the same routine as before. If he has to satisfy a bodily need he must observe the same precautions as a sadhu. If required he should per- form visramana for the sadhus. At the end of the appointed time he declares that the posadha is completed, stands up, and recites the namaskara and then, kneeling with his head touching the ground, recites verses in praise of disciples of MahavJra, who performed the posadha. Asadhara 4 gives the following directions for the performance of the posadhopavasa. After eating and feeding the sadhus at noon the layman should go to a secluded spot and fast. He should spend the rest of that day meditating on religion and, after performing the evening puja and other necessary duties, should pass the night on a 1 Dharma-Sanigraha, pp. 90 ff. 2 As, for example, Haribhadra’s commentary on the Avaiyaka Sutra. 3 For an explanation of this and other terms used see pp. 199 ff. 4 SDhA v. 36-38. 146 JAINA YOGA bed which is devoid of living organisms, devoting himself to smdhyaya, and letting his mind dwell on the anupreksas. After the si xpraharas of the night are over he is to get up and carry out the dawn puja and necessary duties, to pass the remaining ten praharas in similar fashion, and at noon on the morrow of the parvan day to take a moderate repast, at the same time feeding the sadhus. During the fast should be made either mentally or with acitta materials such as aksata to Jinas, sastra and gurus, and all such diversions as music and dancing which lead the mind astray should be avoided. More extensive information is given by Vasunandin. 1 On the saptami and trayodasi days of each half-month the layman, after eating and feeding the minis , is to wash his face and hands and feet, and clean out his mouth, and go to the temple for worship. After paying obeisance to the guru and carrying out the necessary duties in his presence he is to fast from the fourfold aliments also in his presence. The rest of that day he will spend reciting the scriptures, listening to dharma-kathas, and thinking on the anupreksas. He performs the evening puja. and passes as much of the night as he can in the kayotsarga posture. Having made pratilekhana of the ground and prepared a bed in a small compass he is to sleep in the temple or in his own house ; or else he may pass the whole night in the kayotsarga. Rising at dawn he will carry out the morning worship of Jina, sastra and gurus with dravya-puja and bhava-piijd. According to the same pattern he will pass the actual posadha day and the morning of the paranaka day which follows, and will then return home to eat and to feed the sadhus. There is little factual difference in the aticaras recognized by Svetambaras and Digambaras but there are two ways of arrange- ment of them : one traditionally Svetambara, and the other adopted by the Digambaras and also by Haribhadra in the Dharma-bindu 2 and by Hemacandra in the Yoga- sastra . 2 The former scheme is: (i) failure to examine the sleeping-place ( apratilekhita-iayyd ) ; (ii) failure to examine the place of excretion ( apratilekhita - sthandila) *, (iii) failure to sweep the sleeping-place (apramarjita-sayya) ; (iv) failure to sweep the place of excretion ( apramarjita - sthandila ) ; (v) improper general performance of the fast (samyag ananu - palana). 1 £r (V) 280-9. DhB iii. 36. 3 Yg iii. 118. THE POSADHOPAVASA-VRATA 147 The second schema is more convenient as a basis for the present study: (i) excreting without examining and sweeping the spot ( apra - tyupeksitapramarjitotsarga ); (ii) picking up or laying down an object without examining and sweeping the spot ( apratyupeksitapramarjitadana-niksepa ) ; (iii) making one’s bed without examining and sweeping the spot (apratyupeksitapramarjita-samstara ) ; (iv) lack of zeal in performance ( anadara ) ; (v) forgetfulness ( smrty-anupasthapand ). The aticaras as here presented are clearly modelled on those given for the samayika-wata with which the posadhopavasa is closely associated. It is of course the Tattvartha-sutra 1 that is responsible for the innovation and it is from this work that Haribhadra and, in his wake, Hemacandra have borrowed it. (i) ApratyupeksitApramArjitotsarga. A suitable spot of ground must be chosen, examined, and swept either with a monk’s broom ( rajo-harana ) or with the flap of one’s garment be- fore voiding faeces, urine, spittle, or any bodily discharge. The ^vetambara writers specify that neither must there be a failure to do this nor must it be done distractedly ( udbhranta-cetasa ), if the destruction of living organisms by the dropped excreta is to be avoided. (ii) ApratyupeksitApramArjitAdAna-niksepa. Sidd- hasena Ganin 1 understands by this the picking and laying down of sticks, boards, stools, and similar objects without the due precau- tions already mentioned. Pujyapada and Camundaraya 3 explain this aticara as the handling of objects used in the Jina-puja or in the obeisance to the guru such as perfumes, garlands, sandalwood paste, and incense or of articles of personal use such as pots and pans and clothing. The word nihsepa does not always figure in the nomenclature of the aticara but according to Hemacandra 3 is always implied. Although this aticara is missing from the traditional 3vetambara list the deary as, taking say yd and sthandila as upala- ksanas , regard it as included. (iii) ApratyupeksitApramArjita - samstAra. Haribha- dra, 4 defining the sayya or samstdra as ‘consisting of darbha grass, I T (S) vii. 29. 2 CS, p. 12. YS iii. n8. 4 Av (H), p. 8366. 148 JAINA YOGA kasa grass, blankets, or clothes’, says that pratilekhana is obligatory before going to bed, before lying down again after easing nature, before strewing grass on the ground, and indeed before entering the posadha-sala. As in the case of the two preceding aticaras in- spection and cleaning are everywhere held to be essential before mats and garments are spread on the ground. Hemacandra 1 points out that in the designations of these three aticaras the negatives are used in a pejorative sense just as the term abrahmana is applied contemptuously to an unworthy brahmin. (iv) Anadara. For Siddhasena Ganin 2 this means a lack of zeal, and for Pujyapada and Camundaraya 3 more expressly a lack of zeal expressed in failure to perform the necessary duties (avasyaka) owing to the travail of hunger. To this aticara corre- sponds the samyag ananupalana of the traditional Svetambara list defined by Haribhadra 4 as a ‘failure to carry out the fast according to the ritual with unflinching mind’. In this connexion Abhayadeva 5 and Siddhasena Suri give the following elucidation. Vexed by hunger and thirst whilst performing th q posadhopavasa the layman thinks: ‘Tomorrow I shall have an excellent meal cooked, with ghrta-purna cakes and other delicacies and shall drink grape-juice and other refreshing drinks, I shall bathe and anoint myself and make my toilet with saffron paste and comb my hair elegantly, if it is hot I shall sprinkle myself with water.’ Thus he continues to desire the pleasures of the senses and to recall with lascivious words and gestures the joys of venery and to ponder on the prob- lems of worldly business which will confront him, so that there is no virtue in his fast. Devendra , 6 in the §raddha-dina-krtya , records a divergent designation for this aticara : bhojanabhoga (‘the enjoy- ment of food’), which, by taking bhojana as an upalaksana , he inter- prets in the same way. (v) Smrty-anupasthapana. Siddhasena Ganin 7 explains this as ‘inability to remember whether one has or has not per- formed th e posadhopavasa or whether one is or is not to perform it’. This is a fatal defect as the attainment of moksa is rooted in mind- fulness. For the Digambaras this aticara is no more than lack of con- centration and Adadhara 8 in fact applies to it the name anaikagrya ‘an unsteadiness of the mind in fulfilling the necessary duties’. 1 Yg iii. 1 1 8. 2 T (S) vii. 29. 3 CS, p. 12. 4 Av (H), p. 8366. 5 P (A) 30. 6 £rDK, pt. ii, p. 126. 7 T (S) vii. 29. 8 SDhA v. 40. THE POSADHOPAVASA-VRATA 149 As in other cases Somadeva 1 has a very personal interpretation of this vrata . He holds the five aticaras to be : failure to examine the ground ( anaveksd ), failure to sweep the ground ( apratilekhana ), wrong physical activity ( duskarmarambha ), wrong mental activity (t durmanaskard ), and failure to carry out the necessary duties ( avasyaka-virati ). The commentators show considerable interest in whether a layman is to use the monk’s broom ( rajo-harana ) for the operation of sweeping the ground, which is an essential part of the posadho - pavasa, Haribhadra, Siddhasena Ganin, Hemacandra, and the Digambaras do not refer to the question but the other ^vetambaras all mention its use. Abhayadeva 2 and Ya^odeva discuss the point at some length quoting the Avasyaka Curnz and other texts. If the lay- man who is making the posadhopavasa is with a sadhu he is to ask him for his rajo-harana y if he is at home he will use a rajo-harana if one is available, if not, the end of his garment. THE DANA-VRATA (VAIYAVRTTYA- VRATA, ATITHI- S AM VIBHAGA- VRATA) This vrata covers the most important single element in the practice of the religion for, without almsgiving by the laity, there could be no ascetics and therefore no transmission of the sacred doctrine. But dana in its largest sense may include the giving of one’s daughters to wife and the transmission of property to one’s heirs (in other words questions of marriage and succession), the exercise of charity to relieve want even outside one’s own com- munity (a form of ahimsa ), the construction of temples and com- munal institutions such as posadha-salas, and even the performance of piija (viewed as the giving of flowers, incense, flagstaffs, and similar offerings to the Jina). In the categories used to elaborate the doctrine dana also figures as one of the six karmans to be carried out continually by the layman and as one of the constituents of the fourfold dharma. The designation usually applied to this vrata is atithi-samvibhaga Handiqui, p. 28 3. P (A) 29. TAINA YOGA 150 J (‘sharing with the guest’). The word atithi has in fact been special- ized by the Jainas to signify a sddhu on his almsround and is ex- plained to mean ‘one who has no tithi\ i.e. who is unfettered by the fixed dates— the parmn days or the festivals {atsava)— which are important in the secular life. Samantabhadra replaces the term atithi-samvibhaga by vaiyavrttya which is more generally used to indicate the physical services rendered by laymen or monks to other monks in need. Kundakunda and Karttikeya prefer the form atithi-piija and Amrtacandra atithi-dana ; whilst Somadeva is alone in employing the simple expression dana. Though agreeing on essentials Svetambaras and Digambaras differ considerably in their formulation of the subject. It is generally recognized that five factors have to be considered: 1 (i) the recipient ( pair a ) ; (ii) the giver (ddtr ) ; (iii) the thing given ( datavya , dravya ) ; (iv) the manner of giving (dmia-vidhi) ; (v) the result of giving ( dana-phala ). The first four of these are set out in a separate siitra at the end of the seventh adhydya of the Tattvartha-sutra. 2 P ujyapada, comment- ing on this, states that the recipient is of superlative quality if possessed of attributes which lead to moksa, the giver if devoid of envy and dejection, the thing given if it conduces to study and religious austerities, the manner of giving if the atithi is welcomed with fitting reverence. He adds that the excellence of the reward is proportionate to these qualities just as a rich harvest depends on the fertility of the soil, the grade of the seed, and similar factors. The 3vetambaras regard dana as conditioned by five factors to which it must be appropriate (the enumeration is canonical and is found in all their sravakacara texts from the Sravaka-praj hapti onwards) : (i) place ( desa ), i.e. whether the area produces rice or wheat or other cereals or pulses ; (ii) time ( kala ), i.e. whether there is famine or abundance; (iii) faith {sraddha), i.e, whether the giver is in a state of purity of mind ; 1 &r (V) 320. 2 T (P) vii. 39. THE DANA-VRATA 151 (iv) respect (satkara), i.e. whether due attention is shown to the atithi ; (v) due order (krama), e.g. whether the boiled rice ( odana ) or the rice gruel ( peya ) is offered first. The Tattvartha-bhasya refers to these factors as the vidhi and Siddhasena Ganin 1 interprets them rather differently from the other deary as. For him the mention of desa means that the spot must be free of sthdvara-jivas and trasa-jivas, kdla implies a meal- time by day and not by night or a suitable occasion for offering clothes and begging bowl, sraddha signifies a desire to give alms, whilst by krama are intended the traditional usages of a country in such matters as apparel or else the classification of patras into uttama , madhyama , and jaghanya. Like the other £vetambaras he understands by satkara what the Digambaras call the puny as. With this goes a conventional description 2 enjoining that the alms offered must be nyayagata (‘righteously acquired’ by oneself or by one’s forebears and not the product of reprehended occupa- tions) and kalpanlya (‘suitable’, i.e. in the case of food, in confor- mity with the canonical prescriptions as to what may be eaten) ; and that they must be given with deep devotion, in the consciousness that it is the atithi who confers rather than receives a favour. In fact, as the Tattvdrtha-sutra? says, ddna is an outpouring of one’s substance to benefit both the recipient who takes food and drink and the giver who finds the recompense of his action in another life. To return to the five topics enumerated by Vasunandin both Svetambaras and Digambaras recognize a classification set out in full by Amrtacandra , 4 Amitagati,* Vasunandin , 6 and Asadhara into three or, if the undesirable types are included, five patras : (i) the best recipient (1 uttama-patra ) — a Jaina ascetic ( sakala - virata ) ; (ii) the next best recipient (madhyama-patra) — a Jaina layman who is mounting the ladder of the pratimas (viratavirata ) ; (iii) the least satisfactory recipient ( jaghanya-pdtra ) — a non- practising layman who has the right belief ( avirata-samyag - drsti ) ; 1 T (S) vii, 34 (p* JI 9)- 3 ( H )| P* 837^* 3 T (S) vii. 33. 4 PASU 171. 5 & (A) x. 1-38. 6 &r (V) 221-3. 153 JAINA YOGA (iv) a poor recipient ( ku-pdtra ) — a person of righteous life but without right belief (samyaktva-vivarjita) ; (v) a wrong recipient ( a-patra ) — a person devoid of right belief and of all good qualities, delighting in meat, alcohol, and honey (, samyaktva-sila-vrata-varjita ). Somadeva 1 seems to be the originator of another classification of the patras designed to put a premium on erudition: (i) ascetics and laymen who are the support of the faith ( samayin ) ; (ii) astrologers and specialists in other sciences of practical utility {sadhaka) \ z (iii) orators, debaters, and litterateurs (samaya-dipaka or satnaya- dyotaka ) ; (iv) ascetics and laymen who have accomplished austerities and observe the mula-gunas and uttara-gunas (; naisthika , sadhu ) ; (v) leaders of the community in the field of religion ( ganadhipa , suri ). 3 Asadhara 4 has incorporated this classification into his own work, slanting it slightly by substituting naisthika for sadhu and ganadhipa for suri % since both these terms may be understood to cover laymen as well as ascetics. Somadeva 5 seems also to be responsible for a general classifica- tion of dana not found elsewhere except as a quotation in the commentary to the Sagdra-dharmamrta . 6 (i) sattvika — alms offered to a worthy recipient by a giver possessed of the seven datr-gunas ; (ii) rajasa — alms offered in self-advertisement for momentary display and in deference to the opinion of others ; (iii) tamasa — alms offered through the agency of slaves or ser- vants without considering whether the recipient is good or worthy or unworthy and without showing marks of respect. Of these the first is the best and the last the worst. Here as else- where Somadeva shows his indebtedness to vedantist influences. 1 Handiqui, p. 384, 2 The meaningless sravaka of the printed text should certainly be emended to sadhaka. 3 These patras cover the same categories of individuals as those listed by Hemacandra as prabhavakas (p. 45), 4 SDhAii. 51. 5 Handiqui, p. 385. 6 SDhAv. 47. THE DANA-VRATA 153 He goes on to explain 1 that a meritorious ascetic is the most de- serving of all pdtras but where no sadhu is available charity may be given to any co-religionist. To test the worthiness of the recipient is unnecessary since the mere act of giving purifies the layman; he will in any event have to disburse money, and dana is the best way of employing his wealth. Almsgiving to adherents of other faiths can do little good, and they should never be entertained in one’s own house as their presence there might vitiate the ritual of the nine puny as. In particular a rigorous ban is placed on all contact with Buddhists, Carvakas, Saivas, and Ajivakas. The Digambaras have established a list of qualities which should be manifested in a giver. These seven datr-gunas are : (i) faith ( sraddha ) — confidence in the result attained by the alms given; (ii) devotion ( bhakti ) — love for the virtues embodied in the recipient; (iii) contentment (tiisfi ) — -joy in giving; (iv) zeal (sattva) — even when one is not rich, that energy in practising dana which excites the admiration of the very rich; (v) discrimination (vijndna ) — awareness of what is fit or unfit to be given; (vi) disinterestedness (lobha-p arityaga , alubdhata , alaulya ) — lack of desire for worldly reward; (vii) forbearance ( ksama ) — absence of anger even when there are grounds for it. Such is the list given by Devasena, 2 Amitagati, 3 and Camundaraya. 4 A less developed 3vetambara version of this is found in Siddha- sena Ganin’s commentary on the Tattvartha-sutra'.s sraddha, sattva, vitrsnata, ksama, vinaya , sakti. Another Svetambara version is given in the Taitmrtha-bhasya : 6 (i) absence of ill will towards the recipient (anasuya) ( anasuyatva ) (ii) absence of dejection in giving (< avisada ) (avisaditva) (iii) absence of condescension to- wards the recipient (aparibhavita) (nirahankaritva) 1 Handiqui, pp. 284-5. 2 BhS ( 0 ) 496. 3 Sr (A) ix. 3-10. 4 CS, p. 14. 5 T (S) vii. 33 (p. 1 17). 6 Ibid. 34 (P* 13 °)- C 737 M 154 JAINA YOGA (iv) j oy in giving (priti-yoga) (v) auspicious frame of mind (kusa~ labhisandhita) (vi) lack of desire for worldly result (drsta-phalanapeksita) (vii) straightforwardness ( nirupa - dhatvd) (viii) freedom from hankering for an- other rebirth ( anidanatva ). The forms given in brackets on the right belong to the list of seven datr-gunas of the Digambara Amrtacandra.^It is apparent, therefore, that the datr-gunas vary between six and eight in number, with the figure of seven stabilized in the standard list of the later Digambara texts. Amitagati 2 considers that the best giver is a man who practises dana merely from hearing about it, the next best he who practises it because he has seen it carried out, and the least satisfactory he who fails to practise it even though he has both seen and heard of it. Almsgiving is totally ineffective if performed by one who beats or hurts or intimidates others or commits such offences as theft. It must always be accompanied by fair words for, offered ungra- ciously, it provokes enmities. If a giver still regards what he has given as his own property all his possessions will be stolen from him by his sons or wives or by thieves. The Digambaras give a fourfold classification of the datavya : 3 (i) shelter to living beings in fear of death ( abhaya ) ; (ii) food ( ahara , anna) ; (iii) medicaments (< ausadha ) ; (iv) knowledge (jhdna). Naturally this caturvidha-dana represents a purely conventional division and applies only in part to the atithi-samvibhaga-vrata. A variant classification of the caturvidha-dana is given by Pujyapada and Camundaraya : 4 (i) food (bhiksd) ; (ii) religious accessories ( dharmopakarana ) which fortify the ratna-traya\ 3 &r (A) ix. 40-43. 4 CS, p. 14. ( muditva ) (ksama) ( aihika-ph alanap eksa) (niskapatata) 1 PASU 169. 3 e.g, £r (V) 333-8. THE DANA-VRATA 155 (iii) medicaments ( ausadha ) ; (iv) shelter ( pratisraya ). This schematization of course restricts the concept to alms- giving. The concept of what may licitly be given varies. As suitable for almsgiving Haribhadra 1 recommends food and drink, clothes, almsbowls, and medicaments ( ausadha , bhesaja ), and expressly excludes money (Mr any a), Siddhasena Ganin 2 enumerates food, clothes, almsbowls, and staves (dandaka). The food should be rice, wheat, or other cereals, excellent of its kind, well-cooked, and well- flavoured. Devagupta 3 lists food such as sweetmeats, drink such as milk or grape-juice, clothes, almsbowls, medicaments, blankets, and lodging (sayya explained as vasati), Abhayadeva* and Ya^odeva repeat Haribhadra’s list of datavya again insisting that no money may be given. Hemacandra 5 remarks that it is sometimes suggested that there is no canonical authority for dana in any form other than food and drink and goes on to quote texts permitting the offering of clothes, blankets, bedding, rajo-haranas y and other necessary accessories, to ascetics. Such gifts are justified because the monk is thereby enabled through care for his body to pursue the religious life. Clothes obviate the need to seek the warmth of a fire which would destroy brushwood and they help him to concentrate his mind on sukla-dhyana and avoid the disturbance of sickness. The use of an almsbowl makes it easier for him to avoid swallowing food which is impure or water in which there are minute forms of aquatic life. It is irrelevant to say that there is no record of the tirthankaras possessing clothes or almsbowls and that accordingly their dis- ciples do not need them, since by their supernatural knowledge the Jinas can distinguish between tainted and untainted food and between sterile water and water containing living creatures, and so do not need almsbowls. Again when sadhus are obliged to go outside during the rainy season the blanket helps to avoid the destruction of ap-kayas whilst the merciful purpose of the rajo - harana is too well known to need description. Similarly the mukha- vastrika serves to preserve sampatima-jwas, saves vayu-kayas from perishing in the stream of hot air emanating from the mouth, and 1 Av (H), p. 8376. 3 NPP iai. P(A)3i. 3 T (S) vii. 34 (p. H9). 5 YJ§ iii. 87 (pp. 521-6). i S 6 JAINA YOGA prevents prthvi-kayas entering in the form of dust. In the rainy season, too, the use of planks ( phalaka ) and stools (pitha) to lie and sit on is essential, since it is forbidden to lie on ground which is covered with mould ( panaka ) and tiny living creatures ( kuntlm ), whilst bedding is required in the hot and cold seasons. Most beneficial to the life of the ascetics is the provision of lodging, for an upasraya furnishes them with food and drink and clothing and beds at the same time, and protects them from cold and heat, and thieves, and stinging insects. In fact it can be said that there is no objection to any article required for the religious life and the giving of such articles is therefore meritorious. Hemacandra 1 is equally explicit in his definition of undesirable gifts ( kn-dana ). Gold and silver inflame the passions of anger, greed, and lust, iron provokes the death of living beings, sesamum seeds afford a breeding ground for the spontaneous generation of living organisms. Nor can there be any merit in the gift of a cow which destroys living creatures with its hooves, eats unclean things (even though its dung is esteemed holy), and is the cause of suffering to its calf each time it is milked; go-dana is therefore a form of miidhata , of foolish superstition. Similarly kanya-dana the gift of a daughter in marriage cannot be regarded as meritorious : whatever fools may think, even the dowry given at a wedding is no more than an oblation that falls in the dust, for a woman is the key to the door that leads to an evil destiny and bars the way of salva- tion, it is she who steals away the treasure of the religious life. Offerings to the spirits of the ancestors are equally vain : those who seek to nourish the dead are in effect watering a wooden club in the belief that it will sprout into growth. It is absurd to imagine that the ancestors will derive sustenance from food given to brahmins. Offerings made or ascetic practices pursued by a son cannot absolve a parent from sin. Special condemnation is reserved for the offering of meat to recipients of alms. Devendra 2 recommends as licit alms for a sadhu , in addition to the fourfold aliments, medicaments, clothes, woollen or cotton, almsbowls, books, staves of wood or bamboo, blankets, and rajo-haranas. But the best of all forms of dana is the gift of a dwelling-place ( vasati ) for in addition to food and shelter this gives the possibility for study and meditation and development of the righteous life, 1 YS iii. 87 (the antara-Uokdh on pp. 527-32). SrDK 176-8. THE DANA-VRATA 157 Among Digambara acaryas Amitagati 1 furnishes the fullest in- formation about what may or may not be given. Forbidden objects include anything by which a living being may be killed, by which harmful activities may be provoked, through which misfortune is occasioned or disease spread, or as a result of which fear is inspired or the recipient ruined. There is an express ban on the gift of land — the earth is compared to a pregnant woman whose foetus, repre- sented by th tjivas living within it, is destroyed by ploughing — and houses, as in them harmful activities which prolong the cycle of transmigration are carried on. The other items on his list are virtually the same as those enumerated by Hemacandra : iron, gold, money, sesamum seed, meat, kanya-dana (marriage is the concen- tration of all harmful activities) offerings to the pitr, and go-dana (the cow is the object of false beliefs and is given by people who fol- low a false path). Licit dana 2 on the other hand includes anything which destroys disease, has a beneficial effect for another person or strengthens devotion to religion; and in addition to the catur- vidha-dana, clothes, almsbowls, and shelter ( asraya ) as distinct from landed property. Somadeva , 3 after listing the catiirvidha-dana , remarks, in con- nexion with ahara-dana, that food offered as alms should not have been touched by evil persons or consecrated to devas or Yaksas; nor should it have been bought in the market or be prepared with unseasonable commodities. Food, shelter, and books are to be sup- plied to the monks so that they can devote themselves to study and meditation which are impossible without comforts. Physical toil and the career of arms demand less effort from a man than intel- lectual concentration. In contrast to Somadeva, who mentions only the caturvidha-dana to ascetics, Vasunandin* enjoins the giving of food not only to the monk on his almsround, but to the very young and the very old, the blind, the dumb, and the deaf, strangers from another land, and sick people; this is the practice of karuna-dana. To all who are weakened by disease, fasting, fatigue, or anxiety, salutary medi- cines are to be given. Jnana-dana implies arranging for the study and recitation of the scriptures as well as the distribution of texts that have been copied out. In the treatment of ku-dana Asadhara propounds certain r £>r (A) ix. 44-69. 2 &r (A) ix. 81-107. 3 Handiqui, p. 284. 4 £r (V) 335-7. i 5 8 JAINA YOGA distinctions. In agreement with Amitagati he lays down that a nai- sthika layman may give nothing that is prejudicial to right conduct and right belief. Offerings to the spirits of the ancestors, donations of lands to brahmins for the performance of special ceremonies, gifts made to ward off untoward consequences at eclipses of the sun or moon, and astrological conjunctions all come under this ban. It applies also to gifts of land and gold on the occasion of the marriage of a daughter where the recipients may make evil use of them so that in general the ku-dana for a naisthika includes land, houses, iron, cattle, and horses . 1 However, a paksika layman is not only not forbidden but is enjoined to give his daughter and with her lands, house, gold, jewels, horses, elephants, and carriages to suitable co-religionists. Such kanya-dana is a form of sama-datti 2 As an expression of haruna-dana? one should support those who are in need because they have no livelihood, whether or not they are one’s dependants, by giving them food by day, and water, betel, cardamums, and medicines even by night. The primary form of dana is of course food and as an ascetic must live by begged food it must always be the most important. The Dvadasanupreksa * affirms that the giving of food embodies all gifts since the diseases of hunger and thirst occur every day. It pre- serves life and through the strength given by it sadhus study the scriptures night and day. The abhaya-dana } extolled as the noblest of all gifts and re- peatedly illustrated by the famous apologue 5 of the four queens and the robber, is only in name a form of dana and belongs properly to the sphere of ahimsa. Successive Svetambara writers 6 give a ritual for dana quoted from the Avasyaka Curni. When a layman has completed the posadhopavasa he is under an obligation to feed monks before he breaks Iris fast but at other times he may eat either before or after the almsgiving. When the mealtime approaches he puts on his best clothes and ornaments and goes to the sadhus ’ lodging to invite them to come and accept alms. If able to, they accept and two of them — one should not go alone — return with him, walking in front with the layman behind them. Directing them to his house he in- 1 SDhA vi. 53. 2 SDhA ii. 56-57. 3 SDhA 75-76. * KA 363-4- 5 A summary of this tale in English is to be found in Jacobi’s introduction to his edition of the Samaraditya-katha . The Prakrit text appears on pp. 785-7. 6 e.g. iii. 87 (pp, 536-7). THE DANA-VRATA iS9 vites them to sit down. Either he himself gives them food and drink or else he holds the platter whilst his wife offers the alms. Then he makes obeisance to them and accompanies them for a few steps as they leave, after which he may take food himself. If there are no sadhus in the village where he lives he should go to the door when it is time to eat and look carefully in all directions giving expression to the pious wish : Tf only there were sadhus then I should find the way to salvation ( nistarito * bhavisyam ).’ The layman should in any event only consume the same food as has been offered to the monks, but the food should not have been specially prepared for them, though what is given must be of the best quality. Devendra 1 describes the layman as making puja to the house- hold images when the time to eat comes. Having prepared the best gruel he invites the sadhus , and as soon as he espies them coming towards his house he goes to meet them. Surrounded by his house- hold he makes obeisance to them. Then like a physician to a sick man he should apply the treatment of dana , taking into considera- tion time and place and circumstances ( avastha — explained as ‘whether there is famine or abundance’), and the individual (• purusa — explained as signifying whether he is acarya, upadhyaya , young, old, in good or in ill health). These elements recall the five factors listed earlier as conditioning the giving of alms. The Digambaras treat the ritual ( dana-vidhi ) as made up of nine elements termed puny as : these are mentioned by Karttikeya and Samantabhadra and enumerated by Vasunandin, Asadhara, and Vamadeva as follows : (i) reception ( pratigraha , sthapana) — seeing the monk at the door of his house or inviting him from a distance the lay- man should welcome him with the words: Namo *stu tisfha ; (ii) giving a seat of honour (ucca-sthana> yogyasana) — if he accepts the proffered alms he is to be brought into the house and led to the best seat; (iii) washing the feet (andhri-ksalana, car aria- ksalana , padodaka) — his feet are then reverently washed; (iv) worship {arcana) — the layman then pours the padodaka (water in which the feet have been washed) on his own head and makes puja to the sadhu with perfumes, flowers, aksata , naivedya , incense, fruits, and lamps ; 1 £rDK 171-5* i Go JAINA YOGA (v) obeisance {anati, pranama ) — next after putting on him a garland of flowers and reciting the panca-namaskara he bows down to him; For the act of dana purity under four aspects is necessary, the first three referring to the donor : (vi) purity of mind (manah-suddhi) — freedom from arta-dhyana and raudra-dhyana ; (vii) purity of speech ( mcana-mddhi ) — the avoidance of harsh words ; (viii) purity of body (kaya-suddhi) — firm control of the senses ; (ix) purity of food ( anna-hiddhi ). The sixth, seventh, and eighth items of this list represent another manifestation of the familiar category of the tri-yoga — mind, speech, and body. The impurities of food (pinda-dosa) in other words the defects that preclude its acceptance as alms by monks form a canonical category familiar both to $vetambaras and Digambaras. They belong rightly to the field of yaty-acara but are enumerated by some writers on the lay life. A figure of fourteen is usually set for them though a late Digambara writer, Vamedeva 1 notes sixteen. Here is the list as given in a verse quoted by Vasunandin from the Mulacara : 2 nails, living organisms, bones, excrement, hair, specks of dirt, meat, blood, skin, tubers, roots, fruits, seeds, and particles of grain. In their developed form as a category of nine the punyas are peculiar to the Digambaras ; however, the Svetambaras include the same elements under what they term satkara. Thus Haribhadra 3 mentions standing up (< abhyutthana ), offering a seat {asana-pradana), worship ( vandana ), and following the departing guest ( amwrajana ). To these Siddhasena Ganin 4 adds massaging the feet (carana- pramarjana) the final adi indicating that the enumeration is not complete. Siddhasena Ganin 5 notes that any gift may be either (i) solicited {prerita) like the food begged by a sadhu; or (ii) accepted ( anumata ) like the clothes given to an acarya who, desirous to show favour to the giver, approves the offering made; or 1 Bh (V) 530. 4 T (S) vii. 16 (p. 94). Mulacara, 484. 3 Av (H), p. 8376. 1 Ibid. 34 (p. 1 1 8). THE DANA-VRATA 161 (iii) not rejected ( anirakrtd ) like the offerings of flowers or in- cense made to the Jina. As a postcript to the discussion of the ddtavya it is worth noting that a fifteenth-century writer Ratnadekhara 1 distinguishes three types of licit dana : first, the fourfold aliments; secondly, clothes, almsbowl, blanket, and rajo-harana ; and thirdly such articles as needles ( suci ), sewing-thread ( pippalaka ), nail-cutters, and ear- cleaners. In his view 1 there should be annually a presentation of certain articles including clothes, blankets, rajo-haranas , thread, wool, almsbowls, jugs (• udankaka ), water jars ( tumbaka ), staves, needles, and pins ( kantaka ). The insistence on the results of dana is proportionate to its pre- eminence among religious duties. Like other meritorious acts it can contribute to the extinction of karma or to the amassing of a favour- able karma or may find requital in the present life. Even though the scriptures teach that all almsgiving is vitiated if done for worldly fame it is still true, as Vasunandin 2 says, that the ignorant are loath to perform any action from which they can expect no material result. Samantabhadra 3 has written that the feeding of ascetics wipes away the karma heaped up by the activities of the household life just as water washes away blood. Though the older texts mention various auspicious results from almsgiving the Digambaras 4 come more and more to associate dana with rebirth in the fairy-tale world of the bhoga-bhumis. In fact a regular equation is established: gifts to an uttama-patra bring rebirth in an uttama- bhoga- bhumi, to a ku-pdtra in a hi- bhoga-bhumi , and so on, whilst gifts to an apatra lead to no result whatever; Amitagati, Vasunandin, A^adhara, Devasena all dwell on this theme. The Svetambaras do not seem to regard this kind of reincarnation as having any special connexion with dana. Amrtacandra , 5 concerned as always to stress the unique im- portance of ahimsa and its permeation of every vrata, affirms that, since acquisitiveness ( labha ) which is a manifestation of hima is overcome by dana , almsgiving brings about a cessation of himsa. That man is full of lobha who fails to feed the monk who comes to his house like a bee in flight without causing injury in his path. 1 Sraddha-vidhi , p. 161a. 2 Sr (V) 239. 3 RK iv. 24. 4 5 r(A) xi. 62-88; $r(V) 239-70; BhS 497-533* 5 PASU 172-4. i6z JAINA YOGA The aticaras of the atithi-samvibhaga-vrata are enumerated similarly by all writers, ^vetambara and Digambara, except Samantabhadra: (i) depositing alms on sentient things (sacitta-niksepa ) ; (ii) covering alms with sentient things (sacitta-pidhana) ; (iii) transgressing the appointed time (kaldtikrama ) ; (iv) pretending that the alms belongs to others ( para-vyapadesa ) ; (v) jealousy in almsgiving (matsarita). Samantabhadra 1 replaces the third aticara by anadara (lack of respect) a vague term taken from the samayika- and posadhopavasa- mat as. (i) Sacitta-niksepa. Siddhasena Ganin 2 explains this as the depositing of the licit fourfold aliments on sentient uncooked grains of rice, wheat, or barley with the intention of avoiding alms- giving since such dana , though offered, cannot be accepted by the sadhu ; thus the fame of an almsgiver will be obtained at no cost. Haribhadra 3 takes the same view. Abhayadeva 4 and Ya^odeva in- terpret as ‘depositing on the earth’ (which is full of prthvi-kayas). Hemacandra 5 offers the choice of both explanations. Pujyapada 6 and Camundaraya consider that the aticara refers to the placing of food on a lotus leaf or other leaf; this would be a mistake on the giver’s part but not necessarily evidence of a niggardly intention. A^adhara 7 suggests that it may mean ‘depositing on the ground, on water or on plant leaves’. (ii) Sacitta-pidhAna. The &vetambaras all interpret this in the same way: covering the alms offered with fruit, leaves, flowers, or roots with the same intention as in the previous aticara . The Digambaras Pujyapada and Camundaraya 8 speak only of lotus leaves. (iii) KAlatikrama. The Svetambaras understand by this the offering of dana either when the time has passed for the monks to eat or when the time has not yet come, so that in either case they are obliged to refuse. As before, the covert intention is to avoid almsgiving. Haribhadra , 3 in fact, quotes a verse to the effect that the real value of giving lies in giving at the right time. The Digambaras describe this aticara as ‘offering alms at an unfitting time ’. 8 1 RK iv. 31. 2 T (S) vii. 31. 3 Av (H), p. 8386. 4 P (A) 33 * 5 Yg iii. 1 19. 6 T (P) vii. 36. 7 SDhA v. 54. 8 CS, p. 14. THE DANA-VRATA 163 (iv) Para-vyapade^a. For Haribhadra 1 and Siddhasena Ganin 2 this implies an artifice of the following kind: if a monk arrives in quest of alms at the time that a layman is breaking his fast after the posadhopavasa he is merely told ‘this does not belong to us but to someone else* or ‘this belongs to so-and-so, go and ask him 5 . This interpretation is followed by the later Svetambaras and by A^adhara. Pujyapada 3 and Camundaraya suggest that the aticara consists in offering some other person’s alms as if it were one’s own. (v) Matsarita. Two possibilities of interpretation are uni- formly admitted by the Svetambara authorities . 2 Either matsarita means a state of resentment or anger aroused by the monk’s solici- tation even though alms are actually given; or a feeling of envy (defined as ‘dejection at the excellence of an another person’) pro- voked by the sight of a well-to-do neighbour giving generously. This again will stimulate egoistic emulation. Pujyapada and Camundaraya 4 understand by matsarita a lack of respect in alms- giving even though an offering is made. A^adhara 5 combines the &vetambara and Digambara versions. All these offences are aticaras because whatever the artifices adopted the rightness of dana is never called in question and the external marks of respect for the mendicant which constitute the satkara are observed; actual impediments to the giving of alms or dejection of mind for that cause would, as Devagupta 6 points out, constitute a bhanga. There is another general classification, again Digambara, of the act of giving, in this case more usually termed datti: (i) almsgiving ( patra-datti ) ; (ii) giving shelter ( daya-datti ) equivalent to abhaya-dana or karuna-dana ; (iii) transfer of one’s entire property to a son or kinsman before abandoning the lay life (sakala-datti or anvaya-datti) ; (iv) gifts to equals (sama-datti) covering such subjects as trans- fers of property during one’s lifetime or the marriage of a daughter. The distinction of the first and fourth types is inevitably blurred at many points. * Av (H), P . 8386. 3 T (P) vii. 36. 6 NPP 137. 4 CS, p. 14. T(S) vii. 31 (p. 115)- * SDhA v. 54* 164 JAINA YOGA This fourfold datti is perhaps best defined as the treatment given to dana when regarded as one of the six daily duties. The classification introduced, it would seem, by Jinasena 1 is taken up by Camundaraya , 2 who is indebted on more than one score to the Mahapurana, and later by Asadhara, and finds a last distant echo in Medhavin. Of its four elements patra-datti has already been dis- cussed, daya-datti belongs really to ahimsa , and sakala-datti will be dealt with later under the kriyas. Sama-datti is defined by Jina- sena 3 as the giving to an excellent recipient — similar to oneself in respect of kriya, mantra, and vraia — of land, and gold, and horses, and elephants, and chariots, and daughters ; such anuttama-patr a is styled nistaraka (one who assists or rescues). If no person equal to oneself in these respects is to be found such dana may be made to a madhyama-patra . Asadhara* understands by kriya such cere- monies as the garbhadhana described in the Mahapurana , by mantra the panca-namaskara and other ritual formulae, and by vrata the piija and the mula-gimas. The distinction between patra-datti and sama-datti is pointed again by Asadhara 5 in a verse which pro- claims that a dharma-patra is to be entertained for the sake of one’s well-being in a future life and a karya-patra for the sake of one’s repute in this world. Kanya-dana , so strongly condemned by Hemacandra or by Amitagati , 6 is extolled on the other hand from the angle of sama-datti as the path to happiness in this world, since a wife, says Asadhara , 7 punning in a way that reflects a turn of phrase of the neo-Indian languages, is called a house ( grha ), but a mere mass of walls and matting cannot be called a house. The question how much of one’s property is to be devoted to dana is raised with increasing frequency in the later texts. The earliest writer to give a clear-cut answer to this question seems to have been Devasena , 8 who takes the view that a wise man should divide his property into six parts. The first is for the dharma , the second for the upkeep of his family, the third for luxuries ( bhoga ), the fourth for maintaining his servants, and the fifth and sixth shares together are to be used for performing puja. It would appear that Hemacandra 9 is the author of a more 1 MP xxxviii. 35. 2 CS, p. 30. 3 MP xxxviii. 38-39. * SDhA ii. 57* s Ibid. 50. 6 £>r (A) ix. 57-58. 7 SDhA ii. 59. The phrase is borrowed from Somadeva. 8 BhS (D) 578-80. Other views on. the proper distribution of one’s material wealth are given by Jinamandana (£rGuV, p. 34^). 5 YS iii. 120 (pp. 583-95)- THE DANA-VRATA *65 schematic presentation of dana in the form of the seven fields (ksetra), though the term ksetra at least is older for Haribhadra uses it twice in the Dharma-bindu : vibhavocitam vidhina ksetra-danam 1 c give alms in proportion to one's substance, and in accordance with the ritual, to the ksetras ’ and vitaraga-sadhavah ksetram 2 'the ksetra is made up of those who excel in the law of the Jina\ The commentator here explains ksetra as ‘a recipient worthy to be given alms’. Hemacandra describes as an illustrious disciple (■ maha - sravaka ) the man who abides by the vratas and sows his wealth on the seven fields with compassion for those in great misery . 3 The seven ksetras are: (i) Jaina images ( Jina-bimba ) — wealth is sown on them by setting them up, by performing the eightfold puja , by tak- ing them in procession through the city, by adorning them with jewels, and by dressing them with fine clothes. (ii) Jaina temples ( Jina-bhavana ) — new ones are to be built and old ones restored. (iii) Jaina scriptures ( Jinagama ) — the copying of the sacred texts and the giving of them to learned monks to commen- tate. (iv) Monks (sadhn) — ordinary almsgiving. (v) Nuns ( sadhvi ) — ordinary almsgiving. (iv) Laymen (sravaka) — the inviting of co-religionists to birth and marriage festivals, distributing food, betel, clothes, and ornaments to them, constructing public posadha-salas and other buildings for them, and encouraging them in reli- gious duties. Charity is to be extended to all those who have fallen into evil circumstances. (vii) Laywomen (sravika) — all the duties under the last head apply equally in respect of women, who are not naturally more perverse than men. The last four ksetras are the familiar four limbs (catur-anga or catur-varna) of the Jaina community. Hemacandra* goes on to say that a maha-iravaka should use his wealth indiscriminately to assist all who are in misery or poverty, or who are blind, deaf, crippled, or sick, irrespective of whether recipients or not. Such sowing of one’s substance is to be made 1 DhB iii. 71. 3 Ibid. 73. 3 Yg iii. 120 (verse). 4 Ibid, (p, 595). r 66 JAINA YOGA with limitless compassion but not with devotion ( bhakti ) as in patra-dana. Subsequent Svetambara writers take over from Hemacandra the seven ksetras as a convenient method of treating the subject of dana and A^adhara 1 refers to them when discussing the appro- priateness of giving alms to laywomen and nuns. A later development is apparent in the sahgha-piija or distribu- tion of blankets, cloth, needles, thread, staves, almsbowls, rajo - haranas, and other objects useful to an ascetic. Ratnasekhara 2 and Caritrasundara 3 recommend that this should be carried out annually. THE SALLEKHANA-VRATA Sallekhana , 4 generally interpreted as ritual suicide by fasting, the scraping or emaciating of the kasayas forms the subject of a vrata which, since it cannot by its nature be included among the formal religious obligations, is treated as supplementary to the twelve vratas ; however, in a few cases — by Kundakunda, Devasena, Padmanandin, and Vasunandin — it has been incorporated, rather anomalously, into the twelve as the last tiksa-vrata . Early in the 3vetambara tradition the £ravaka-praj napti* expressly states that sallekhana is not restricted to ascetics; but already in the Sravaka-dharma- pahcaiakaP it is given only a perfunctory mention ; it is absent com- pletely from those chapters of the Dharma-bindu which deal with the lay life; even Hemacandra, 7 despite the amplitude of his coverage of sravakacara , devotes only a very short space to the subject, and after his day the sravakacara texts are in general silent. The Nava-pada-prakarana 8 seems to be the only Svetambara sravakacara to treat sallekhana in detail. It lists the seventeen possible forms of voluntarily chosen death of which three only are permissible for a Jaina. 9 In fact these three are fused together but the name of only on e—prayopagamana (by the later Svetambaras often falsely sanskritized from Prakrit paovagamana as padapa - gamana and by the Digambaras sometimes abbreviated to pray a ) — 1 SDhA ii. 73. 2 Sraddha-vidhi, p. 161 a. 3 AU vi. 19. 4 CS, p. *3. s g rPr 382. 0 P (g r Dh) 40. 7 Yg iii. 149-53* 8 NPP 129-35. 9 For a consideration of these see von Kamptz, Vber die vom Sterbefasten handelndert dlteren Painna des Jainci-Kcinons, Hamburg, 1929. THE SALLEKHANA-VRATA 167 is retained to become synonymous with sallekhana itself, which is also often called samadhi-marana. Various reasons may decide a man to perform sallekhana. The 3vetambara Tattvartha-bhasya 1 mentions time (explained as time of famine), physical weakness (samhanana-daurbalya), calamity ( upasarga ), and the approach of death which renders the perfor- mance of the avasyakas impossible. Hemacandra insists on this last motivation. Devagupta 2 suggests that the rite should take place in a Jaina temple or at a kalyana-sthana( place of birth, ordination, en- lightenment, or nirvana of a ttrthahkara) f or if this is impracticable, in one’s own house (grha) or in the wilderness ( arayya ). In default of a kalyana-sthana Hemacandra 3 advocates grha or aranya ; but by the former he understands a monks’ lodging and by the latter a place of pilgrimage such as Satninjaya. Whatever the place chosen, the piece of ground on which the prospective suicide is to lie down must be devoid of living organisms and pratilekhana and pramar - jana must have been performed. For the ^vetambaras the actual practice of sallekhana seems, as in the canonical sources, to begin with a progressive withdrawal of food. The Tattvartha-bhasya 1 speaks of a gradually increasing severity of fasting of the avamattdarya type (in which one meal is missed and then another taken) culminating in complete abstinence from food and drink. The Nava-pada-prakarana 4 prefers the canonically approved method of first abandoning all solid food and then making the fast complete by extending it to include liquids. The confession of one’s faults (alocana) and forgiveness of all offences committed against oneself (ksamana) make a man fit for the so-called samstara-dxksa or death-bed consecration expressed in a special form of confession (vikafana) and reinforcement ( uccarana ) of the vows (not, however, the administration of the maha-vratas ). His last moments on earth will then be spent in concentration on the pahca-namaskara and on the catnh-sarana and in meditation on the anupreksas and on all that is covered by the term aradhana J And even in these last moments he will need to be steadfast to withstand the assaults of parisahas and npasargas . 6 There are some variations in the presentation of sallekhana by 1 T (S) vii. 17 (p. 95). 2 NPP 129. 3 Yf 5 iii. 150. 4 NPP 131. 5 YS iii. 151 (p. 757). 6 For these see Glasenapp, Der Jainismus p. 207. Hemacandra lists and describes them: Y& iii. 153 (pp. 758-61). 1 68 JAINA YOGA the Digambaras, the generally current views being exemplified by Samantabhadra 1 and Camundaraya , 2 who would seem to enjoin the same ritual for layman and ascetic. In a rather brief reference Vasunandin 3 describes a rite appropriate to sravakas only; and a distinction between sravaka and yati is maintained in Asadhara’s long and detailed treatment of the theme. Samantabhadra 4 prescribes sallekhana when the individual is overcome by calamity (; upasarga ), famine, old age, or incurable disease. In this last rite (anta-kriya) he is to put aside affection and enmity, and all attachment and acquisitiveness, and then to seek forgiveness of his kin and his household and his friends, at the same time expressing his forgiveness to them in gentle words. Only when he has confessed without any concealment all his transgres- sions, krta , karita, or anumata, is he fit to assume the maha-vratas in their entirety for as long as his life lasts. Abandoning dissatis- faction, sorrow, fear, defection, and turpitude, and stimulating courage and steadfastness he is to soothe his mind with the nectar of the scriptures. Once he has taken the maha-vratas he begins the fasting ritual which is in three stages, involving a gradual reduction in the intake, first of solid food, then of fatty liquids ( snigdha-pana) y then of acid liquids (khara-pana), until finally all nourishment is abandoned. As he repeats the panca-namaskara he is to keep his mind fixed on the five paramesthins until at last he abandons his body. Sallekhana in Vasunandin’s 3 conception differs little from the Jovetambara model and does not imply for a layman the assumption of the maha-vratas. He is to abandon all parigraha except for cloth- ing and after making alocana in the presence of a guru is to perform the rite in his own home or in a temple, abstaining first from solid food and then fasting completely. A^adhara 4 devotes a whole adhyaya to the consideration of sallekhana and the accompanying aradhana meditations and, it would seem, regards it as the normal conclusion of human life except where sudden death makes this impossible. Preparation for it is to be made when the individual is afflicted by old age or calamity and the actual fast will begin when the physical deteriora- tion of the body or omens, obtained from astrological data or from ornithomancy, indicate that the moment has come. He is, if pos- 1 RK v. 1-7. 2 CS, pp. 22-24. 3 00 271-2. 4 SDhA viii. THE SALLEKHANA-VRATA 169 sible, to repair to a place of great sanctity such as a kalyana-sthana or else to a Jaina temple, in which case, even if he dies on the way, the intention in his mind will have a very favourable effect on his next reincarnation. Then he is to make alocana to a guru (remaining exempt thereafter from the three salyas) and to forgive all offences against himself. He is now fit to receive the maha-vratas but if he feels a sense of shame either because he has been very rich or because his family are unbelievers or because nudity offends his sense of propriety he may avoid a frequented place and choose a solitary spot for this smnstara-diksa which entails nakedness. 1 In this last hour it is proper even for a woman to divest herself of all clothes. 2 For the performance of the death fast external and internal expressions of purity, in each case fivefold, are required ; these refer to the following points: 3 External ( hahirahga ) (1) the bed (samstara) (2) the monkish insignia (upadhi) (3) the confession ( alocana ) (4) food (anna) (5) vaiyavrttya Internal ( antarahga ) right belief (samyag-darsana) right knowledge (samyag- jndna) right conduct ( samyak - caritra) vinaya the six avasyakas Whether the aspirant has taken the maha-vratas or whether, unable to give up attachment to clothes, he has retained his lay status he is now ready to undertake the fast which is carried out in stages as described by Samantabhadra. In very hot weather or in a desert climate or in the case of certain diseases the dying man may be permitted to go on drinking water almost until the last and only in extremis will he relinquish completely the four aliments A Then all those present will stand in the kayotsargato promote the success- ful outcome of this holy death and the guru will whisper in the dying man’s ear a few last words of exhortation : ‘Vomit forth un- belief and imbibe pure religion, make firm your faith in the Jinas, have joy in the namaskara , guard the maha-vratas , overcome the kasayas , tame the sense organs and by yourself see yourself within yourself (atmanam dtmanatmani pasyd )' 4 5 1 SDhA viii. 37. 3 Ibid. 38. 3 Ibid. 42-43. 4 Ibid. 63-64. s Ibid. 68-69. N 0 737 170 JAINA YOGA Five aticaras are recorded for the sallekhana- as for other vratas: (i) desire for a fortunate rebirth as a man (iha-lokasamsa ) ; (ii) desire for a fortunate rebirth as a divinity (para-lokasamsa) ; (iii) desire for continuing life (jwitasamsa ) ; (iv) desire for death (maranasamsa) ; (v) desire for sensual pleasures (kama-bhogasamsa). For the last aticara of the ^vetambaras the Digambaras use the term nidana , already familiar as one of the salyas , which is practi- cally identical with one interpretation of knma-bhogdsamsa. The first and second infractions are given by the Digambaras as : (i) attachment to comfort (sukhanabandha) ; (ii) affection for friends (mitranuraga). Samantabhadra 1 is alone in regarding bhaya (fear) as the first aticara. The Nava-pada-prakarana 2 would consider as a bhanga of sallekhana any request for food or proposal to eat again, once the fast has been begun. (i) Iha-loka£amsa. This is the desire to be reborn in a human incarnation in which one may enjoy the good things of the world — as a guildsman or a king’s minister, says Iiaribhadra, 3 as a universal monarch, suggests Devagupta, 2 or in Hemacandra’s 4 phrase, in any position of wealth and fame. (ii) Para-loka6amsa, This is the desire to be reborn in the deva-loka and more particularly in a high position among the devas. (iii) JIVita^amsa. The Svetambaras 3 and Asadhara 5 explain this as meaning either a general desire for continuing life or as a wish to go on enjoying the high consideration accorded to a per- son engaged in the rite of sallekhana , with many people about him engaged in reciting the scriptures and performing vaiyavrttya for him and extolling his great qualities. Pujyapada and Camundaraya 6 regard this aticara as ‘reluctance to abandon this body which is as ephemeral as a bubble of water’. (iv) Maranasamsa. This is, for the Svetambaras, the direct antithesis of the preceding aticara . 3 It means that a man conceives the desire to die as quickly as possible because he is disappointed that no one comes to wait on him and pay him respect on his 1 RK v. 8. a NPP 135, 3 Av (H), p. 840#. 4 YS iii. 152. 5 SDhA via. 45. 6 CS, p. 23, THE SALLEKHANA-VRATA 171 deathbed. Pujyapada and Camundaraya understand by it the hope of speedy death in order to put an end to the miseries of disease or calamity . 1 (v) KAma-bhoga^amsA or nidana. The same interpreta- tion 2 may be given to kama and bhoga as in the fifth aticara of the brahma-vrata , but the ^vetambaras in general 3 specify here a desire for rebirth as a Vasudeva, or as a very handsome or very rich man. The Digambaras 4 understand by this aticara a desire that the performance of the grim rite of sallekhana may result in unbounded satisfaction of sensual desires in another incarnation. (i) Sukhanubandha. This is to be understood as the recol- lection of the comforts and the pleasures one has enjoyed in former days . 4 (ii) Mitranuraga. This is the recollection of the friends one has loved, of the games of childhood, of merry festivities, and of shared pleasures of all kinds . 4 It is not surprising that the duty, or at least the recommended practice, of ritual suicide is an aspect of Jainism that has been remarked and reprobated by non-Jainas. Some acaryas— Ampta- candra 5 and Pujyapada, for example — have therefore felt it neces- sary to defend sallekhana . Pujyapada 6 maintains that it cannot be called suicide because of the complete absence of raga which is always present when a person under the sway of passion or hate or delusion poisons or otherwise destroys himself. He compares the layman undertaking sallekhana to a householder who has stored goods in a warehouse. If danger threatens he tries to save the whole building but if that proves impossible he does his best to preserve at least the goods. The householder’s warehouse is the body and his goods the vratas. He does not seek the destruction of his body but if he cannot maintain it he tries at least to safeguard the vows he has taken. Asadhara 7 employs a rather similar turn of phrase : it is the dharma , he says, which fulfils the desires of the necessarily perishing body ; the body itself is recuperable in another incarnation but the dharma is very hard to recover. Sallekhana. alone, according to Amrtacandra , 8 will enable a man in dying to take away with him all his stock of dharma . 1 T (P) viii. 37. 2 UD 57- 3 iil ' 5 *- 4 CS, p. 24, s PASU 177-80. 6 T (P) viii. 22. ’ SDhA viii. 7- 8 PASU *75- i 72 JAINA YOGA The underlying motive for sallekhana is perhaps best put by Asadhara : 1 if at the hour of death there is an offence against the dharma a lifetime of religious observance and meditation will be vain, but if the final meditation is pure even deeply encrusted sin will be eradicated . 2 It is the physical weakness and the mental delusion that are often associated with old age or grave infirmity that provoke the evil forms of dhyana and make it difficult or im- possible to keep up the daily avasyakas that help to make firm the mind. A healthy body is to be guarded from disease but one that fails to respond to treatment is to be rejected just as an evil man is shunned by the good . 3 In such circumstances it is easier to let the body waste away than to attempt to maintain the religious life ; and sallekhana will be, in Hemacandra’s 4 vivid phrase, in some sort an udyapana 5 for the whole sravaka-dharma. And when this body, which is like a withering leaf or like a lamp in which the oil is running low , 6 is at last abandoned, there is hope that the jwa may burst asunder the cage of existence or at least abridge by many hundreds of incarnations his wanderings in the samara P In default of moksa , it is abundantly stressed, the correct practice of sallekhana will certainly lead to rebirth in the deva-loka. THE PRATIMAS The eleven stages of spiritual progress — the word pratima means a statue and is used in another specifically Jaina sense to designate the kdyotsarga — have been described by Schubring 8 as, so to speak, a vertical projection of the horizontally conceived vratas ; their enumeration would represent partly a theoretical graduation and partly the possibility of choice. The medieval acaryas , however, quite plainly conceive of th zpratimas as forming a regular progress- ing series in Amitagati’s words, a sopana-marga , a ladder on each rung of which the aspirant layman is to rest for a number of months proportionate to its place on the list before he is fit to 1 SDhA viii, 1 6. * For some literary parallels illustrating the significance of the hour of death, see K. Bruhn, Silankas Cauppannamahapurisacariya, pp. 107-8. 3 SDhA viii. 4. * YS iii, 149 (p. 755). 5 For the meaning of this word see p. 231. 6 Handiqui, p. 287. 7 SDhA viii. 28. 8 Schubring, Die Lehre der jfainas, pp. 180-1. THE PRATIMAS 173 supplement and reinforce his achievement by the practice of the succeeding stage. The pratimas are listed below in the Svetambara (including the Avasyaka Curni ) and the Digambara enumerations, which diverge slightly: SvETAMBARA Digambara Avasyaka- Curni (1) darsana darsana darsana (2) vrata vrata vrata (3) samayika samayika samayika (4) posadha posadha posadha (5) kayotsarga sacitta-tyaga ratri-bhoj ana-parij ha (6) abrahma-vaijana ratri-bhakta sacitta-tyaga (7) sacitta-tyaga abrahma-varjana diva-brahmacarya (8) arambha-tyaga arambha-tyaga divo-ratri-brahmacarya (9) presya-tyaga parigraha-tyaga arambha-tyaga (10) uddista-tyaga anumati-tyaga presya-tyaga (11) sramana-bhuta uddista-tyaga uddista-tyaga-s'ramana- bhuta The differences in these lists are more apparent than real and in fact concern two points : the position of sacitta-tyaga in the series and the insertion of parigraha-tyaga by the Digambaras. What is called the kayotsarga-pratima or pratima-pratima embraces a pro- vision for continence by day and moderate sexual congress by night; in other words it is equivalent to the ratri-bhakta-pratima as understood by the majority of Digambaras. The point at issue therefore is simply whether the cessation of sexual relations is to precede or to follow the abandonment of sacitta foodstuffs. Not even all the Digambaras are in agreement here for Somadeva reverses the positions of sacitta-tyaga and arambha-tyaga in the table. In regard to the second point the Digambaras would seem, even if they have deliberately inserted the parigraha-tyaga, to have eliminated the sramana-bhuta only in name, for from the time, at least, of Yasunandin onwards, the eleventh pratima is divided into two grades to which in modern times the terms ailaka and ksullaka are attached and the second of which seems to correspond to the canonical descriptions of the Sramana-bhuta. In reality the most important divergence on the list is that which the nomenclature conceals : whether the ratri-bhakta-pratima is to be interpreted as the restriction of sexual relations to the night time or as the abandonment of eating by night. In view of the i 74 JAINA YOGA commentators’ descriptions of the kdyotsarga-pratima there is little reason to question the former explanation and it would seem probable that Karttikeya and Samantabhadra 1 (in this as in so many other matters an innovator) were led to their view by the ambiguity of the term bhakta and by the importance ascribed to the avoidance of night eating. The Dvadasanupreksa 2 is exceptional in referring to twelve stages of the lay life, the first pratima implying the possession of samyaktva and the second the avoidance of the grosser faults ( sthula-dosas ) such as drinking alcohol (in effect the practice of the mula-gunas). Generally the Digambaras regard both of these quali- fications as implicit in the darsana-pratima. Karttikeya lists the remaining pratimas in their normal Digambara order. In the following discussion of the individual pratimas the Svetam- bara view will be represented by the Pratima-pancasaka and by Abhayadeva’s commentaries on this and on the Upasaka-dasah , since later Svetambaras appear to attach little importance to this formulation of the layman’s duty. Even Hemacandra seems to have omitted it from the section of the Yoga-sastra devoted to the srava- kacara , and the belated description of the pratimas furnished apparently for the sake of completeness by Ya^ovijaya in the seven- teenth century is no more than perfunctory. i. The stage of right views (darsana-pratima) The Pratima-pancasaka 3 begins by explaining the word pratima as meaning ‘body’ (Prakrit bondt ), that body which is the vehicle of the human incarnation and which in the darsana-pratima is purified from misconceptions ( ku-graha ) through the elimination of mithyatva which is compared to a poison infecting the system. The characteris- tic of this stage is the avoidance of the aticaras of samyaktva. The Digambaras from Samantabhadra 4 onwards add to this a second requirement: the observance of the mula-gunas. (Karttikeya, of course, as was noted above, makes these into two separate pratimas .) Samantabhadra 4 further stipulates for this stage a lack of attachment to creature comforts and worldly life, and devotion to Jina and gurus. Amitagati 5 speaks of fostering the gunas of samyaktva , Vasunandin 6 stresses particularly the eschewing of the seven vyasanas, and A^adhara 7 insists in more general terms on 1 RK v. 2r. ^ KA 305. 3 P (SrUP) 4-6. * RK v. 16. s gr (A) vii. 67. 6 Sr (V) 57. ’ SDhA iii, 7-8. THE PRATIMAS 175 purity of moral conduct; whilst the Sravaka-dharma-dohaka 1 characterizes the first pratima very simply as ‘refraining from eating the udumbara fruits’. 2. The stage of taking the vows (vrata-pratima) This in the Pancasaka 2 is described as the assumption and observance of the vratas and the avoidance of their aticaras and the comprehension that the essence of the law is compassion. Abhaya- deva makes it plain that here the anu-vratas are intended. Samantabhadra , 3 however, states unambiguously that this pra- tima implies also the observance of the guna-vratas and siksa - vratas , and from the statements of other deary as this may be taken as the generally accepted Digambara view. Freedom from the three salyas is, of course, a prerequisite for the taking of the vows. 3. The stage of practising the samayika {samayika- pratima) When his observance of the anu-vratas is satisfactory the aspirant to spiritual progress is fit to perform the samayika , which, as the commentators never tire of repeating, temporarily assimilates him to the status of an ascetic. The frequency with which this is to be carried out is not clearly defined. Abhayadeva 4 considers the morn- ing and evening twilight periods as the proper times. Where the &vetambaras see in the samayika a purification of the soul by meditation some Digambaras like Samantabhadra 3 regard it as an act of worship of the Jina comprising the gestures of reverence associated with the vandanaka , and performed thrice daily. Others such as Somadeva seem to extend the concept to cover the full ritual of the caitya-vandana . 4. The stage of fastin g (posadha-pratima) This involves the keeping of four fasts in each month . 6 The differences in observance are noted under the head of the posa- dhopavasa-vrata. 5. The stage of continence by day (kdyotsarga-pratima, ratri-bhakta-pratima) According to Abhayadeva 7 the requirements of this pratima are that on th eparvan days when fasting a man should spend the whole night in the kdyoisarga posture, steadfast in heart and conscious 1 Doha 10. 2 P(SrUP) 10. 3 RK v. 17. 4 P (SrXJP) 11 - 12 . s RK v. 18. 6 RK v. 19. 7 P (SrUP) 18. 176 JAINA YOGA of his aim, and that at other times he should avoid sexual congress by day and ‘make only moderate use’ of his wife by night. He should also, in the words of the Pancasaka , be vikata-bhojin (ex- plained as ‘refraining from night eating’). Amongst the Digambaras Karttikeya 1 and Samantabhadra 2 (fol- lowed by Rajamalla) interpret this pratima to mean the refusal to take food by night. The existence of this view is noted by Asadhara 3 but he, with Camundaraya, 4 Somadeva, Amitagati, and Vasunandin (and also Medhavin and Vamadeva), prefers to understand by it the abstinence from sexual relations during the day. Asadhara 5 indeed would seem to extend this interdiction at this stage to cover all intercourse unless during the rtu and expressly for the procreation of children. 6 . The stage of absolute continence ( abrahma - varjana-pratima) In this pratima according to the Pancasaka 6 the layman is to avoid not only all physical contact with a woman, but he is never to allow himself to be alone with a woman, nor to engage in con- versation about women; and he must also avoid any care for his personal appearance or for the clothes and ornaments he wears. The Digambaras 7 * take the opportunity here to stress the value of meditation on the impurity of the human body (the literature is very rich in verses on this theme) and the inborn wickedness of women, as an aid to carrying out this pratima , in which of course are also comprised the cessation of all sexual activity and the extinction of all desire. 7. The stage of purity of nourishment (sacitta- tyaga-pratima) The Pancasaka 8 explains that from among the fourfold aliments the layman must now avoid in the asana category, inter alia , tandula , wnbika , 9 chick-peas (canaka), and sesamum (tila ) ; in th zpana cate- gory all unboiled water as well as liquids that contain salt; in the khadima category the five udumbara fruits and cirbhatika ; 10 and in the svadima category myrobalans {haritaki), betel, and the use of a 1 KA 382-3- 3 RKv. ai. 3 SDhAvii. 13. 4 CS, p. 19. s SDhAvii. 14. 6 P (&rUP) 20-21. 7 e.g. RK v. 22. 8 P (SrUP) 23-25. 9 The lexicographers explain this to mean ‘fried stalks of wheat or barley*. 10 Cucumis utilissimus . THE PRATIMAS 177 toothpick. As Abhayadeva points out he would also have to refrain from eating any grains or pulses, uncooked or insufficiently cooked, and any of the foodstuffs that are styled tucchausadhis . The Digambaras 1 , who nearly all make this pratima the fifth on the fist, exclude here the consumption of all roots and tubers, green leaves and shoots, and seeds and fruits in an uncooked state. Asadhara 2 comments that the man who would hesitate to crush a growing plant with his foot should not be ready to pick and eat that same plant. By this pratima the layman in fact engages himself to observe the same food restrictions as are incumbent on a monk. 8. The stage of abandonment of activity (arambha- tydga-pratima) In this stage the layman must relinquish all harmful activity done by himself, but is not yet strongwilled enough to abandon all activity exercised indirectly through agents or servants for the sake of a livelihood . 3 The Digambaras state that in order to avoid himsa all activity exercised for a livelihood — commerce equally with agriculture — is to be abandoned, but from this prohibition the arambha inherent in such religious practices as puja is expressly excluded . 4 9. The stage of breaking the ties with the house- hold life (Svetambara presya-tyaga-pratima , Digambara parigraha-tyaga-pratima and aniimati-tyaga-pratima) The description of the ninth stage in the Pancasaka s is fair war- rant for asserting that it corresponds both to the ‘abandonment of acquisitiveness 5 and the ‘abandonment of approval for the house- hold life 5 which figure in the Digambara enumeration. In this pratima when he ceases to have work done by servants the layman is to lay down the burden of worldly cares on his sons or brothers or on other members of his household (this would in effect corre- spond to what the Digambaras call sakala-datti ), to reduce to the minimum his acquisitive hankerings (mamatvd) and to foster the longing for final release ( samvega ). For the Digambaras parigraha-tyaga is the abandonment of the ten external attachments since in Camundaraya’s 6 words parigraha is the begetter of the four kasayas , of drta - and raudra-dhyana, and * e.g. RK v. 20. * SDhA vii. 9. 3 P (SrUF) 26. 4 SDhA vii. 21. - s P (SrUP) 29-31- 6 CS, p. 19. 178 JAINA YOGA of fear. Asadhara 1 takes up the question of sakala-datti and pre- scribes the formalities for its accomplishment: they are, he says, required to prevent the resurrection of the tiger of delusion. Samantabhadra 2 notes that anumati-tyaga is expressed in three ways : the refusal to approve attachment to possessions ( parigraha ), harmful activities (arambha), or the affairs of this world {aihika- karmari). At this stage says Asadhara 3 the layman should spend his time in the temple carrying out svadhyayci and after the midday vandana should take his meal, when summoned, in his own or in somebody else’s house, reflecting that soon he will no longer be eating specially prepared food but only what is given as alms. This stage is essentially one of preparation for the eleventh pratima when the world is renounced. Vasunandin 4 comments that the only parigraha permissible from the ninth stage onwards is attachment to clothes, this being gradually reduced in the succeeding pratimas. In this stage the layman is to refuse to express any opinion on household affairs even when it is sought by those dearest to him. io and n. The stage of renunciation of the world (uddista-tyaga-pratimd and sramana-bhuta-pratima) In the uddista-tyaga-pratimd 6 the layman, according to the Pahcasaka , avoids all food specially prepared for him and goes about with shaven pate or wearing a top-knot, indifferent to mun- dane business. In the sramana-bhuta 6 stage he is either to keep his head shaven or to perform the loca — the tearing out of the hair, traditionally in five handfuls, supposedly obligatory on every monk on ordination — and to carry the monastic requisites — the broom (rajo-harand) and the begging-bowl ( avagraha ). He is then said to be touching or supporting the dharma with his body. Even if on his almsround he goes to his own kith and kin he may only beg his food and eat only what is licit for a sadhu. The earlier Digambaras know only one form of the eleventh pratima. Kundakunda 7 lays down that the layman is to make the begging round practising irya-samiti. Samantabhadra 8 says that he is to repair to a sylvan retreat of ascetics (muni-vana) and to assume the vratas ; he will then live by alms begged, wearing but one piece of cloth and pursuing asceticism. Camundaraya 9 agrees that he is 1 SDhA vii. 37-28. ^ RK v> 25t 3 SDhA vii, 31-33. 4 &(V) 299 . 5 P (SrUP) 32 - 33 . 6 P (&UP) 35-37- 7 Siitra-prabhrta , 31. 8 RK v. 26. 9 CS, p, 19. THE PRATIMAS 179 to live by alms and to wear only one piece of cloth and adds that he is to eat from the hollow of his hand and to reject food or any other form of dana that has been specially reserved for him. The first text to mention two divisions of the eleventh pratima seems to be the Sravaka-dharma-dohaka'. 1 in the former, one piece of cloth is worn, in the second, only a loincloth ( kanpina ), the hair of the head being removed either by tonsure or by the loca. It is not, however, until the sixteenth century that the names by which these two types of laymen are still known are applied to them for the first time: Rajamalla, in the Lati-samhita , 2 calls the former kmllaka and the latter ailaka. The word kmllaka is used as a Jaina tech- nical term from an early date and undoubtedly the sense to be ascribed to it is that later attested in the Acara-dinakara 3 where the ksallakatva-vidhi— of which ample details are given — appears as a sort of provisional ordination which does not bind the ordinand to the monastic life if he has not the vocation (tatah samyamasya yathokta-palane pravrajya , vrata-bhange punar gdrhasthyam). The meaning is not peculiar to the Svetambaras for it is clearly thus that Camundaraya 4 uses the term kmllaka-rupena in describing the avalamba-brahmacarin ; whilst he applies to what is today called the kmllaka the designation naisthika-brahmacarin, a layman pledged to chastity, shaven save for a top-knot, and wearing only a loin- cloth ; in the provision that it is to be either white or red lies per- haps a hint of the subsequent distinction of kmllaka and ailaka , s for according to Medhavin 6 the former wears white and the latter is clad in red. Medhavin though he distinguishes two types of the eleventh pratima still uses the word kmllaka in the older sense . 7 1 Doha 17. 2 Lati-samhita t vii. 55-56. 3 Acara-dinakara , pp. 726-36. 4 CS, p. 20. 5 Hiralal Jain, in his introduction to the Vasunandi-sravakdcara> has discussed at length the meaning and origin of the terms kftdlaka and ailaka . Basing himself on the views expressed in the Adi-purana and on the use of the word k$idlaka in a work the Prayaicitta-culika to which he perhaps ascribes too early a date, he would consider k$ullaka or ksudraka to designate a person unworthy and in- eligible to become a monk owing to lowly birth. This argument can with diffi- culty be sustained, for in the tenth century Katha-kosa of Iiari§ena, in the tale of Ya^odhara, the young prince and princess who are Jaina devotees appear as k$ullakas in the train of an dcdrya. In regard to the suggested derivation of ailaka from acelaka it can only be pointed out that — leaving aside the philolo- gical difficulty — the ailaka is in fact expressly described as cela-khanda-dhara. See Sr (V) : Bhtimika, pp. 60-64. 6 Dharnia-satjigraha-srdvakdcara , viii. 7 Ibid. ix. 21. i8o JAINA YOGA From Vasunandin 1 and Asadhara 3 onwards the Digambara authorities all describe the two varieties of the uddista-tyaga- pratima and the general delineation remains the same. The ksullaka is to wear one piece of cloth (Asadhara speaks of a white loincloth), to cut off his hair and beard either with scissors or with a razor, to take food seated, either from a bowl or from the hollow of his hand, and to perform pratilekhana with a soft piece of tissue. The ailaka may wear no more than a loincloth, must make the loca and eat from the palm of his hand, and will carry a peacock’s feather rajo-harana to make pratilekhana. Both ksullaka and ailaka are enjoined to observe rigidly the complete posadhopavasa on the parvan days, and both must beg their food according to the following routine. The quasi-ascetic when he goes, begging-bowl in hand, to a layman’s house is either to show himself and wait silently or to pronounce the dharma- labha (the benediction used by a monk in greeting to a layman) ; and if he receives no alms he must not be dispirited but is to repeat the request elsewhere. When he has obtained enough food to satisfy the craving of hunger he should eat no more. He may drink only water that has been rendered sterile by boiling (prasuka). Then having washed his almsbowl he should go back to his guru to make pratydkhyana followed by alocana or confession of his faults . 3 But the ksullaka or ailaka may, if he chooses, make a vow or niyama to beg only from one house (eka-bhiksa-niyama) ; in that event he is to follow a monk on his begging round and if he meets with a refusal must of necessity fast . 4 Again he may prefer to stay all the time in a muni-vana engaging in tap as and performing the ten kinds of vaiyavrttya for the ascetics . 5 Certain features of the monk’s life remain forbidden to the lay- man even in the eleventh pratima. He is not allowed to study the mysteries of the sacred texts. He may not engage in the kayotsarga for a whole day (dina-pratima), nor pursue the almsround (vira- carya) as does a monk, nor practise the tri-kala-yoga, the form of asceticism which consists in meditating on a hill-top in the hot season, under a tree during the rains, and by a river’s bank in winter. Pride in one’s own knowledge or asceticism is severely 1 Jr(V) 301-13. 4 2 SDhA vii. 34-50. 3 Sr (V) 303-10. It is curious to find the term dharma-labha used in a Digam- bara text. 4 SDhA vii, 46. 5 Ibid. 47. THE PRATIMAS 181 to be condemned and the form of greeting used by the laity iccha- kara remains the only one which ksullaka and ailaka may properly use. 1 The conception of the pratimas seems to have suffered certain modifications in the history of Jainism. As delineated in the Upasaka-dasah they are a means to achieve a spiritual development which will in the end lead the devotee to take his own life by sallekhana. It is therefore natural to expect that in course of time if fewer Svetambara laymen tend to have recourse to ritual suicide the pratimas lose their significance. Where among the Digambaras sallekhana remains at least in an attenuated form (‘in the event of mortal illness or famine or calamity’) 2 part of the pattern of life, for the ordinary layman great importance continues to attach to the pratimas. By placing them in the sallekhanadhikara of his srava- kacara Samantabhadra clearly emphasizes the connexion whilst Asadhara expressly states that the ksullaka and ailaka should always keep in mind the possibility of recourse to sallekhana , or put in other terms, the naisfhika-fravaka has still to become a sadhaka-sravaka . 3 In fact, for various reasons in the Digambara community — some have suggested that the conquest of large areas of India by Moslems who disapproved of nudity was respon- sible — laymen in the eleventh pratima came, to a large extent, to take the place of monks. Perhaps because of the importance of these quasi-monks the sequence that led, through the pratimas , automatically to sallekhana was broken. There is, as certain Digambara acaryas* imply, a special con- nexion between the pratimas and the siksa-vratas : the third and fourth pratimas are at the same time siksa-vratas and the fifth, sixth, and seventh all relate to the paribhogopabhoga-vrata , food being the main paribhoga and women the principal upabhoga ; and even the last three pratimas are concerned, inter alia, with the progressive diminution of attachment to another upabhoga — clothing. Classi- fications of sravakas according to their progress through the pratimas are offered by some Digambaras such as Somadeva and Asadhara. 1 SDhA vii. 49-50. 3 RKv. 1. 3 SDhA vii. 61. 4 SDhAiii. 1-8. For an elaboration of this subject see Sr (V): Bhumika , pp. 54-58. JAINA YOGA 182 THE DINA-CARYA After outlining the traditional pattern of the layman’s duties as expressed in the vratas , Hemacandra lays down that if he fulfils these and also practises charity reverently to the seven ksetras and compassionately to the needy he is to be designated a maha-bavaka , 1 a term, not it would seem, previously employed but adopted later by Asadhara and by some Svetambaras. This ideal layman is expected to carry out the obligations of his religion in a uniform round which Hemacandra calls the dina-carya 2 and which serves as a framework for a description of the piijd and caitya-vandana and the various avaiyakas . If the expression is Hemacandra’s the idea is very much older. As early as the Sravaka-praj fiapti the exposition of the vratas is followed by a rather rough-and-ready description of the abhi- grahas . 3 This word, which in normal usage is the equivalent of niyama (a vow), appears already in this text, specialized in the meaning of any duty incumbent on a layman : it may include even such obligations as the provision of ghee for monks who have just performed the loca . It reappears in this sense in such later works as the Sraddha-dina-hrtya.* In the Sravaka-dharma-pancasaka 5 the picture of the dina-carya is already taking shape. The pious Jaina is to recite the panca- namaskara on waking and to say to himself: T am a sravaka and have taken the vows.’ Before starting his work he goes to the temple and performs the piijd and caitya-vandana . When he returns home he eats at the fitting time and again repairs to the temple to listen to the scriptures, perform puja, and wait on the ascetics. At night he will go to sleep, as he woke, with the 7 lamaskara. The sutras of the Dharma-bindu 6 offer a concise notation of all the daily duties ; and on this description Hemacandra 7 has drawn largely. The sravaka is to get up at the brahma-muhurta (the four- teenth of the night) with the namaskara on his lips and recalling his vows. A long description of the caitya-vandana follows and then of the pratikramana and pratyakhyana. After the morning’s work the layman is to make the midday piija before taking his meal. 1 Y£d iii. 120. 2 Y£ iii. 122 (p, 597). 3 &rPr 376. 4 &*DK s6g. s P (grDh) 42-46. e DhB 46 ff> 7 YS iii. 122-32, THE DINA-CARYA 183 The afternoon he spends in questioning the monks about the scriptures after which he performs the evening puja and the avasyakas . He will now, if he is in the habit of eating twice a day, take his second meal. When he lies down to sleep he is to pursue his meditations on the scriptures, avoiding if he can all sexual relations and indeed all erotic ideas. In the sixth adhyaya of the Sagara-dharmamrta Asadhara 1 took over Hemacandra’s picture of the dina-carya beginning with the moment of waking when the srdvaka asks himself: ‘Who am I? What are my vows? What is my dharmaV but he did not find imitators among the later Digambaras, and there is only a faint echo of Hemacandra in Medhavin’s 2 use of the expression maha-sramka . The real importance of the dina-carya lies in its adoption as the preferred model for the later sravakacaras . The most important, and one of the first works constructed on these lines, is the Sraddha- dina-krtya of Devendra. In general terms the abhigrahas which he prescribes for laymen may be set out as follows . 3 The srdvaka awakens with the namaskara and as the torpor of sleep falls away calls to mind the religion to which he belongs, the family into which he has been born and the vows which he has assumed. When after defecation, tooth-cleaning, tongue-scraping, mouth-rinsing, and bathing he is in a state of cleanliness, of ritual purity, he is to make dravya-puja and bhdva-pujd to the Jina image in the chapel of his own home and to undertake the form of pratya- khyana appropriate to the time of day. Before engaging in this act of worship he should if possible perform the six avasyakas . The adoration of the Jina is then repeated in the form of puja and caitya- vandana in the temple. The devotee then seeks out the religious teachers and, repeating the pratyakhyana before them, listens to their exposition of the scriptures. He is enjoined to inquire form- ally after their well-being and to perform for them various per- sonal services, including the provision of medicaments for the sick. His work must then claim his undivided attention. When he returns from his place of business he is to carry out the noon puja and, after providing alms for any monks who may require to be fed, he is to take his midday meal, eating in moderation. He will then reaffirm the pratyakhyana and meditate on the meaning of the scriptures. At the close of the afternoon he performs the 1 SDhA vi. 1-9. 4 £>r (M) vii. 136. 3 SrDK 2-7 : these opening verses summarize the dina-carya. 1 84 JAINA YOGA evening puja and the six dvasyakas. He is then to engage in sva- dhydya and if necessary to minister to the bodily needs of the ascetics (yati-visramana) by massaging their limbs and in other ways. Finally he will go home and, after giving religious instruction to his household, lie down to sleep: sleep, like food, is to be indulged in with moderation. If possible he should abstain from sexual intercourse and to this end he should, during the intervals of sleep, direct his mind to meditation on the impurity of the human body and the innate wickedness of women and to emulation of those who have renounced the world. THE NECESSARY DUTIES The six daily dvasyakas 1 or necessary duties are traditionally: (1) samayika — this is the subject also of a vrata and of a pratimd\ (2) caturvimsati-stava — praise of the twenty-four Jinas (this is comprised in the catty a-vandana ) ; (3) vandanaka — worship (generally restricted to the ritual ex- pression of respect to a monk or to the community of monks) ; (4) pratikramana — the recitation of the formulae of confession of past faults ; (5) pyatyakhydna — the recitation of formulae for the forfending of future faults generally expressed in the form of abstinence from food and drink and comforts ; (6) kayotsarga — ‘the abandonment of the body’ for a limited time. The numbering of the dvasyakas is that of the Svetambaras ; the Digambaras reverse the positions of kayotsarga and pratyakhyana. This list was perhaps never wholly satisfactory. In particular the kayotsarga is different in its nature from the other dvasyakas to which it is properly an adjunct; keeping the body motionless for a limited period of time serves as an aid to concentration of mind but is not an end in itself. To judge from the details of the mediaeval texts the Svetambaras would probably have regarded the most im- portant dvasyakas as puja , caitya-vandana, and guru-vandana and even the notion of ‘daily’ duties must have tended to be lost, if the 1 See Schubring, Die Lehre der Jainas, p. 170. THE NECESSARY DUTIES 185 fifteenth-century Ratnasekhara, 1 who includes the samayika and the caitya-vandana among the religious practices recommended specifically for the enforced leisure of the rainy season, is to be regarded as reflecting the practice of his age. The Digambaras seem tacitly to accept that the dvasyakas are rather a matter for the ascetic than for the layman and writers like Camundaraya 2 and Asadhara, who treat both of sravakacara and yaty-acara refer, their readers to the latter for information about these rites. Those deary as who follow the tradition of Jinasena have virtually replaced the avasyakas by a list of six daily karmans to be performed by the layman: 3 (1) pujd — which in fact covers the samayika , caturvimsati-stava, and vandanaka ; (2) vartta — the exercise of an honest livelihood; (3) dana — almsgiving; this is the subject also of a vrata\ (4) svadhyaya — study of the scriptures ; (5) samyama — the carrying out of the five ammatas with com- plete self-discipline; (6) tapas — which includes pratikramana, pratyakhyana , and kayotsarga. THE NAMASKARA The basic ritual formula of Jainism is the panca-namaskara or panca-paramesthi-stutip the invocation which runs : namo arihantdnam namo siddhanam namo aydriydnam namo uvajjhaydnam namo loe savva-sahunam to which is sometimes added the complementary verse: eso panca-namokkaro savva-pava-ppanasano mangalanam ca savvesim padhamam havai mangalam Hail to the Jinas, to those who have attained moksa, to religious leaders, to religious teachers and to all monks in the world. This fivefold salutation which destroys all sin is pre-eminent as the most auspicious of all auspicious things. 1 Sraddha-vidhi , p. 1 58a. z Thus CS, p. 26 : vandana . . . tat-prapancas tiittaratra vak$yate. This refer- ence is taken, up on p. 69 of the section anagara-dharme tapo-varnanam where details of the vandana are given. 3 MP xxxviii. 24; CS, p. 21. ' 4 See Glasenapp, op. cit., p. 367. C 737 O 186 JAINA YOGA ‘This supreme prayer, this best object of meditation ’ 1 serves as a quarry for magic formulae of varying lengths and different potency: thirty-five syllables — or sixty-eight if the complementary verse is added — are counted in the full namaskara (sarvaksara- mantra) but various abbreviations, of which the most popular is the use of the initial aksaras of the five paramesthins (mukhyaksara- mantra ), are employed to give totals of sixteen, six, five, and two aksaras . 2 The whole namaskara can also be concentrated in the single syllable om which is held to be a contraction of the mukhyak - sara-mantra , siddha being replaced by asarira and sadhu by muni to give a , a, a, u, m. Audibly muttered in an unending repetition, these formulae play an important part in the pada-stha-dhyana. This practice of jap a (as it is called) is accompanied by the telling of the beads, which may be of gold or gems or merely of lotus seeds . 3 The recitation of the panca-namaskara, the aparajita-mantra as it is styled, comes to be synonymous with acceptance of the Jaina creed and it is with this prayer on his lips that the pious layman should wake each morning . 4 Twice a day at the morning and evening twilights he is to meditate on the excellent protection derived from it. s Its magic powers grow in the popular imagination as witness the late Ratna-mala which says that whoso remembers this imperishable mantra will never be seized by rdksasas or bitten by cobras . 6 With the namaskara is associated the catuh-sarana, the recourse to the four refuges of the arhats , the siddhas , the deary as, and the community, and both are mentioned particularly as a source of support in the final trial of the sallekhana , 7 when they form the symbolic quintessence of the scriptures, which are too long to be borne in mind in that hour. The catuh-sarana runs as follows : arahante saranam pavvajjami, siddhe saranam p avvajjdmi, sahii saranam pavvajjami , kevali-pannattam dhammam pavvajjami The use of mantras as a feature of worship develops more and more, under the influence of Hinduism. The biggest impetus to this trend seems to have come from Jinasena, who prescribed their use with all kriyas . 8 1 I0 ‘ 2 P* 466. 3 Handiqui, p. 272. 4 SrDK 2. 5 Dharma-rasayana , 152. 6 Ratna-mala, 43. 7 Y& iii. 151 (p. 758). 8 MP xxxviii. 75. (i 87 ) THE CAITYA-YANDANA The caitya-vandana , which comprises elements of the samdyika, caturvimsati-stava, and vandanaka , the first three necessary duties, is given an extensive treatment in the Avasyaka literature. Under- stood as the ‘veneration of the Jina’s image’, it is closely associated with the puja ‘the making of offerings to the Jina’, and Devendra defines it as the combination of the dravya-puja (actual offerings) and bhava-puja( hymns of praise and mental concentration), Hema- candra, it must be admitted, describes the puja only as an element of the caitya-vandana , but in the much earlier Prakrit Pancasakas the two topics are kept separate in different sections. It would seem more appropriate to follow the Pancasakas in restricting the term caitya-vandana to the bhava-puja and to what in effect constitutes the Jaina liturgy, and to apply the designation puja to the bathing and adorning of the images and the making of offerings to them, both in the temple and in the home. The following consideration of the caitya-vandana is virtually limited to Svetambara sources, since, at least during the medieval period, the Digambara treatises on the lay life barely touch on the subject. From the Avasyaka texts onwards the acaryas divide the caitya- vandana into twelve sections devoted to specific objects of worship iadhikard) and five chants ( dandaka ) : Ad HI KARA (i) Bhava-jina (3) Dravya-jina (3) Eka-caitya-sthapana-jina (4) Nama-jina (5) Tri-bhuvana-sthapana- jina (6) Viraharnana-jina (7) Sruta-jnana (8) Sarva-siddha-stuti (g) Tirthadhipa-vlra-stuti (10) Ujjayanta-stuti (11) A§t§pada-stuti (13) Sudp?ti-smarana Dandaka Appropriate passage OF LITURGY Pranipata Arhac-caitya- stava Nama-jina-stava Sruta-stava Siddha-stava Sakra-stava without final verse final verse of §akra-stava caitya-stava nama-stava 1 caitya-stava preluded by the words savva-loe first verse of sruta-stava rest of sruta-stava first verse of siddha-stava second and third verses of siddha-stava fourth verse of siddha-stava fifth verse of siddha-stava sura-smrti-sutra 1 This is the caturvvrisati-stava . For a translation and discussion see Leumann, Vbersicht iiber die Avasyaka-Literatur, pp. 6-7. :88 JAINA YOGA Each adhikara concerns a special object of worship : 1. Bhava-jina — this implies the visualization of the Jinas en- dowed with kevala-jnana as they are present in the sama- vasarana. 2. Dravya-jina — this is the worship of the arhatva-dravya , the raw material of the quality of Jina, i.e. th ejina-jivas who will one day in this or in another life attain to final release. 3. Eka-caitya-sthapana-jina— the worship of Jina images in temples everywhere. 4. Nama-jina — worship of the names of the twenty-four Jinas who have appeared in the present era in Bharata-ksetra, This corresponds to the second avasyaka , the caturvimsati- stava , in its narrower sense. 5. Tri-bhuvana-sthapana-jina— the worship of Jina images in sasvata and asasvata temples in the three worlds. 6. Virahamana-jina — worship of the infinite number of absent Jinas, past and future, in the universe. 7. Sruta-jnana — worship of the holy writ. 8. Sarva-siddha-stuti— worship of all those beings who have attained to moksa. 9. Tirthadhipa- Vira-stuti — worship of Mahavira the last Jina. 10. Ujjayanta-stuti— worship of the twenty-second Jina Arista- nemi, who entered into nirvana on Mount Ujjayanta. 1 1 . Astapada-stuti — worship of the other twenty-two Jinas, who entered into nirvana on Mount Astapada. 12. Sudrsta-smarana — worship of those dev as who like the Gomukha Yaksas attained to samyaktva and performed vaiyavrttya to Mahavira. Haribhadra recognizes only nine adhikaras, the second, tenth, and eleventh being omitted, but the dandakas and the pattern of the ritual of course remain the same. In fact the ritual as set forth in the Vandana-vidhana-pancasaka, in such Avasyaka commentaries as the Lalita-vistara of Haribhadra and the Caitya-vandana-bhasya of Devendra, and in Hemacandra’s Yoga-sastra 1 shows almost no variation. It is given a numerical framework by division into five preparatory features ( abhigama ) and ten triads (trika) or groups of three related actions, or of actions requiring to be performed three times : 1 Y& iii. 124 (pp. 599-644). THE CAITYA-VANDANA 189 The five a b hi gam as 1 (which are extracted from the conven- tional descriptions of the ruler or rich man arriving to perform the samayika) are: 1. Discarding of all sentient ( sacitta :) objects such as flowers, betel, sid'dharthaka, durva grass, that may be on one’s person. 2. Retaining of certain non-sentient ( acitta ) objects. There is some uncertainty on this point but in any event vehicles, footwear, swords, knives, camaras , and chattras are to be left behind on entering the temple, whilst it would appear that all ornaments except diadems are to be retained. 3. Donning of an outer garment in the form of a wide piece of cloth. 2 4. Making the anjali at sight of the Jina image with the words ‘Hail to the friend of the world’ ( namo bhumna-bandhave). 5. Concentrating one’s mind on worship. The ten triads ( trika ): 3 1. Three naisedkikts: (i) The first naisedhikis signifies the relinquishment or prohibition {nisedha) of the mundane activities (, grha - vydpara). It is to be pronounced on entering the main gate of the temple. (ii) The second naisedhiki implies the abandonment of all activities connected with the temple ( Jina-grha-vyapara ) and is spoken when one enters the inner sanctuary (garbha-grha). (iii) The third naisedhiki expresses the end of activities (Jina- puja-vyapdra ) connected with the puja ceremony (which must of necessity involve some harmful arambha). It is pronounced before carrying out the actual caitya-vandana, 1 CVBh 19-20. 2 The commentaries make it clear that a man is therefore expected to wear two pieces of cloth and a woman three, of which one will be the kahcuka or bodice. 3 The clearest description of these is to be found in the Sanghacara com- mentary of Dharmagho$a : CVBh 6-19. + The symbolism of the naisedhiki , as interpreted in the Volksetymologie, is lost if the correct sanskritization of nisihiya is restored. For a discussion of the subject see Leumann, op. cit., pp. 9-10 (who explains): ‘ Man hat tinier die Avassiyd eine leise V erabschiedimg und unter die Nisihiya eine leise Begriissung zu verstehen . Ebenso soil man bei jeder Ankunft mil dem Wort nisihiya eine gewisse Weihe verbreiten,’ i 9 o JAINA YOGA 2. Three circumambulations ( pradaksina ). 3. Three reverences {pranama) : l (i) The anjali. (ii) The pancdnga , i.e. a reverence in which the five limbs — head, two hands, and two knees — all touch the ground. (iii) The ardhavanata, i.e. a reverence in which the body is ‘half-bent’, the head and hands touching the ground. These are each to be made three times and to be accom- panied by the words ‘Hail to the Jinas’ ( Jinebhyo namah). 4. Three forms of piijd : (i) anga-puja ; (ii) agra-puja ; (iii) bhdva-pujd. These are discussed at length in the section on puja : it is only the third — the immaterial acts of worship in the form of stuti — that belongs to the caitya-vandana in its narrower sense, embracing the twelve adhikaras and five dandakas listed above. 5. Meditation ( dhyana ) on the three states ( avastha ) of the Jina: (i) on the chadma-stha state in which he is still travestied as an ordinary mortal. To this the pinda-stha-dhyana applies. It is again divided into three phases : (a) birth — the meditation is stimulated by the images of the snapakas , the gods mounted on elephants, who pour water from ewers ( kalasa ) ; (b) kingship — the meditation is stimulated by the im- ages of the arcakas , the votaries who bring garlands ; (c) the monkish condition — the meditation is provoked by the sight of the Jina’s hairless head ; (ii) on the kaivalya state in which he has attained infinite knowledge. To this belongs thz pada-stha-dhyana, which arises from the vision of the eight pratiharyas , 2 the miraculous manifestations which took place when the Jina attained to kemla-jnana; 1 The D’t'tV— IV 4 f ■. s kinds of pranama (Sr (A) viii. 62-64). z ! V- op. cit,, p. 253. THE CAITYA-VANDANA Jgz (iii) on the siddhatva state in which he has reached nivvcina* Here the meditation, the rupattta-dhyana, , is to be achieved by performing the kayotsarga in the parya- nkasana posture. (The rupa-stha-dhyana, 1 which arises from the mere sight of the image, is expressly excluded from this trika.) 6. Abstention from looking in the three directions (tri-din-niri- ksana-virati). The worshipper is not to look to the right or to the left or behind him (in another interpretation neither upwards nor downwards nor transversally) but is to keep his gaze fixed on the image. 7. Making pramarjana three times of the ground under foot ( pada-bhumi-pramarjana ) . 8 . F ulfilling the three requirements of the liturgy (yarnadi-trika ) : (i) reciting distinctly and without omissions or additions the words of the stutis ; (ii) reflecting 011 their meaning; (iii) representing to oneself mentally the objects of adoration. 9. The three mudras: 2 3 (i) Jina-nmdra — the two hands hang down loosely and the feet do not touch. The purpose of this ?midra is to remove obstacles. (ii) yoga-mudra — the two hands are joined with the fingers interlocking and the elbows resting on the abdomen. The inudrd is calculated to achieve all desires. (iii) inukta-sukti-mudra — the two hands are clasped evenly together and raised so as to touch the middle of the fore- head. (A divergent view holds that they should be close to the eyes without actually touching the forehead.) 10. The threefold final prayer (pranidhma)* the concentration of mind, body, and speech in the form of caitya-vandana , guru-vandana 1, and prarihana (invocation). 1 The four types of dhydna are described by Amitagati (&r (A) xv. 30-56). 21 Amitagati describes in addition to these three a vandana-mudra (Sr (A) viii. 53-56) and many other mudras are found in the ritual literature. 3 The term pranidhana seems to be used approximately in this sense in the Srdvaka-prajnapti (368-73). 192 JAINA YOGA (i) the first pranidhana y called from its opening words the javanti-ceiyaim javanti ceiyaim uddhe ya ahe ya tiriya-loe ya samaim tdim vande iha santo tattha santaim From here I adore all such images as exist there in the upper world and the middle world and the nether world ; (ii) the second pranidha?ia, called the javanta-kei-sahil javanta kei sahu Bharah' -Eravaya-Mahavidehe ya savvesim tesimpanao tivihena ti-danda-virayanam I bow down to all those sadhus averse from evil in word, in thought, or in act who are to be found in Bharata, Airavata, and Mahavideha; (iii) the third pranidhana, called the jdya~myaraya or prani - dhana-sutra. The text of this is given below in its place at the end of the liturgy. The numerical plan of the caitya-vandana includes in addition to the five abhigamas and ten trikas a mention of three avagrahas (utkrsta, madhyama , and jaghanya), the distance from the image at which the votary is to stand — the best avagraha is six hastas away — and of the vama-dik and daksina-dik. Men, it is said, are to stand on the right of the image when worshipping, because of their pre- eminence in the dharma y and women on the left. From the elaborate details the sequence of the elements of the vandana would seem, at least in Devendra’s picture, to be as follows ; On arriving at the temple and catching sight of the image above the door, the worshipper makes the ahjali. As he enters, and leaves behind the cares of the world, he utters the first naisedhiki . I-Ie goes into the sanctuary and, as he circumambulates the images, he pro- nounces the second naisedhiki. He then carries out the puja for which he has brought with him the necessary materials, first bath- ing and dressing the image, and then setting the offerings before it, and burning incense and waving lamps. When this is done he utters the third naisedhiki , makes the pancahga-pranama , and, adopting the yoga-mudra, commences the recitation of the Sakra-stava , re- placing it by the Jina-mudra for the caitya-stava. When the five dandakas are completed he recites the three pranidhanas accom- panying them by the znukta-sukti-mudrd. The caitya-vandana is then at an end. THE CAITYA-VANDANA i 93 The caitya-vandana liturgy in its narrower sense may be out- lined as follows : The worshipper recites the panca-namaskara , performs prati- kramana and alocana using the airydpathiki-mtra * and then en- gages in the kdyotsarga reciting the uttari-kararia-sutra 2 ' an dkayo- tsarga-siitra . 3 He concentrates his mind and his gaze on the Jina, and ‘his body horripilating from the force of samvega and vairagya and his eyes moist with tears’-* he makes the pancanga-pranama and using the yoga-mudra starts to recite the pranipata-dandaka. i. Pranipata-dandaka.s The Sakra-stava , so-called because in the legends it is usually spoken by Indra , 6 runs as follows : natno ’ tthu arihantdnarn bhagavantanam, aigaranam titthayaranam sayaimamhuddhanam , puris’ -uttamanam purisa-sihanam purisa-vara- pundariyanam purim-vara-gandha-hatthinam , log* -uttamanam loga-ndha- nam loga-hiycinam loga-pawdnamloga-pajjoya-gardnam , abhaya-dayanam cakkhu-dayanam magga-dayanam sarana- daydnam bohi-daydnam, dhamma-dayanam dhamma-desayanam dhamma-ndyaganam dhamma- saraJnnam dhamma-vara-cduranta-cakkavattinam , appadihaya-vara - ndna-damsana-dhardnam viyatta-chaumanam, jindnam jdvayanam tinnanam tdraydnam buddhanam bohaydnam muttanam moyaganam, savvanniinam savva-darismam sivam ayalam aruyam anantam akkha- yam avvdbdham apunardvitti-siddhi-gai-ndmadheyam thanam sampatta- nain namo jindnam jiya-bhayanam je ya aiya siddhaje ya bhamssanti ’ nagae kale sampai ya vattamdnd savve tivihena vandami Praise to the arhats, the blessed ones, who are the cause of the begin- nings, who provide the path across, who have of themselves attained enlightenment, the best among men, the lions among men, the lotuses among men, the gandha-hastins 1 among men, the best of those in the world, the lords of the world, the benefactors of the world, the lights of the world, the irradiators of the world, those who give freedom from fear, who give insight, who give the right direction, who give refuge, who give enlightenment, who give the sacred doctrine, who expound the sacred doctrine, who are the authorities on the sacred doctrine, the guides to the sacred doctrine, the oecumenical monarchs of the sacred doctrine, those who maintain the irrefutable knowledge and insight, 1 Seep, 163. z See p. 173. 3 See p. 173. 4 YS, p. 612. 5 Y&, pp, 612-29; LV, pp. 7(1-766. 6 p. 629. 7 The gandha-hastin or ‘perfume-elephant’, a familiar creature of legend, is regarded as the noblest of beasts. i 9 4 JAXNA YOGA who have thrown off all travesties, the Jinas, who drive away evil, who have crossed over, who aid others across, the enlightened and the enlighteners, the liberated and the liberators, the omniscient, the all- seeing, those who have reached that place that is called siddhi-gati from which there is no return, and which is bliss immutable, inviolable, endless, imperishable, and undisturbed; praise to the Jinas who have overcome fear. In the threefold way I worship all the siddhas , those who have been, and those who are, and those who in future time will be. Haribhadra and Iiemacandra have felt it necessary to give a very detailed interpretation of this and the following stavas, and it is possible here to mention only a few of the points made. Special interest attaches to the popular etymologies, almost invariably false, by which the associations of a word are evoked. Thus the arhat is explained either as the one who is worthy (arha) of vandana and puja\ or (in the form of Prakrit arihanta ) as the de- stroyer of the enemies (an), 1 these being the evil qualities such as moha which are responsible for the growth of karma, or karma itself in its various forms; or again (in the Prakrit variant aruhanta) those in whom the seed of karma can no longer grow (ruhati). The bhagavat is the possessor of bhaga defined lexically by fourteen terms which (after subtraction of the inappropriate meanings arka and yoni) become the twelve alapakas to be recorded in the praise of the Jina: knowledge (jnana), glory (mahatmya), fame (yasas), asceticism ( miragya ), final release ( mukti ), beauty ( nipa ), courage (virya), energy ( prayatna ), longing ( icchd ), religion (dharma), abun- dance (sri), wealth (aweary a). The tirthankaras are lions because of their courage in combatting the enemy that is karma, they are lotuses because they have made to blossom in the mire of the samara the flower of the dharma , whilst all calamities are driven away by the presence of the tirthahhara just as lesser elephants are driven away by the gandha-hastin. 2. Arhac-caitya-stava-dandaka 2 The worshipper, making the Jina-mudra, recites the caitya-stava : arihanta-ceiyanam karemi kayussaggam vandana-vattiyae puyana- vattiyae sakkdra-vattiyae sammdna-vattiyae bohi-laha-vattiyae niruva- sagga-vattiyde saddhae mehae dhite dharanae anuppehae vaddhamame thdmi haussaggam 1 For these see p. 229. YS, pp. 629-32; LV, pp. 766-896. THE CAITYA-VANDANA 19S For the sake of the images of the arhats X make the kayotsarga , for the sake of worship, for the sake of making offerings, for the sake of making gifts, for the sake of making praise, for the sake of obtaining enlighten- ment, for the sake of final release, I stand in the kayotsarga with faith, with intelligence, with steadfastness, with mindfulness, with reflection, with intensity. Hemacandra understands here by pujana the offering of flowers and garlands, by satkara the giving of ornaments and clothes, and by sammana hymns of praise (in other words the three forms of pilja). These are legitimate for a layman; and an ascetic, though he may not make dravya-puja himself, may yet approve it or get others to perform it. When several worshippers are engaged in the caitya-stava together, one only will recite the words whilst the others stand silent in the kayotsarga. On completion of the kayotsarga the panca-namaskara is to be repeated. The next phase is the praise of the twenty-four tirthankaras of the present era, 3. Nama-Jina-stava-dandaica 1 r. logassa ujjoya-gare dhamma-titthayare jine arihante kittaissam caxmsam pi kevali 2. Usabham Ajiyam ca vande Sambhavam Abhinandanatn ca Sumaini ca Paumappaham Supasam jinam ca Candappaham vande 3. Suvihim ca Pupphadantam Siyala-Sejjamsa-Vasupujjani ca Vimalam Anantam ca jinam Dhammam Santim ca vandami 4. Kunthwn Aram ca Mallim vande Munisuvvayam N ami- jinam ca vandami Ritthanemim Pasarn taha Vaddhamdnam ca 5. evam mae abhithua vihuya-raja-mdla pahma-jara-marana caavisam pijina-vara titthayara me pasty antu 6. kittiya-vandiya-mahiya jee logassa uttamd siddha drogga-hohi-ldham samahi-varam uttamam dentu 7. candesu nimmalayara aiccesu ahiyam payasayara sagara-vara-gambhlra siddha siddhim mama disantu I shall praise the twenty-four Jinas, the arhats of perfect knowledge, who have illuminated the world and created the sacred doctrine as a way across . . . [The names are listed ]. . . . Thus I have extolled the twenty- four Jinas who have shaken off impurities and defilements and rejected old age and death; may they, the tirthankaras , be gracious to me; may Yf 3 , pp. 632-43; LV, pp. 896-966. 196 JAINA YOGA they, the siddhas, the best of beings give me enlightenment and tran- quillity and final release, they who have been praised and worshipped and adored. May the siddhas , purer than the moons, more radiant than the suns, and profound as the oceans, give me bliss. After this nama-stava the caitya-stava is repeated, the words $avva~loe being prefixed to it. 4. Sruta-stava-daijdaka 1 1. Pukkhara-vara-div* addhe Dhayaikhande ya Jambadive ya JBharah? -Eravaya- Videhe dhamm' -digare namamsami 2. tama-tiinira-padala-viddhamsanassa sura-gana-narinda-mahiyassa sma-dharassa vande papphodiya-moha-jalassa 3 . jai-jara-marana-soga-pandsanassa kalldna-pukkhala-visdla-suhcwa- hassa ko deva-danava-narinda-gan'-acciyassa dhammassa saram uvalabbha karepamdyam 4. siddhe bho payao jina-mae nandi say a samjame devam-ndga-suvanna- kinnara-ganasab-bhuya-bhav'-accie logo jattha paitthio jagam inam telokka-macd -asuram dhammo vaddhau sasao vijayao dhamm* -uttaram vaddhau suyassa bhagavao karemi kaussaggam I bow down to those who have established the sacred doctrine in Puskaradvlpa, in Dhatakikhanda and injambudvipa, inBharata, Airavata, and Mahavideha, I worship the iruta-dharma , which contains the rules of conduct, which dispels the veil of the darkness of ignorance, which is adored by gods and kings, which rends asunder the net of delusion, which ends the sorrows of birth, old age, and death, which brings the full and ample bliss of final release. Who, if he understands its essence, can be neglectful of the sacred doctrine worshipped by gods and demi-gods and kings ? 0 siddhas , I am devoutly attached to the Jaina creed; well-being always lies in the religious life extolled with veritable devotion by devas, nagas, jyotiskas , and kinnaras . May the eternal sacred doctrine prosper this world of devas , mortals, and asuras where the people are firmly estab- lished in it, may it be victorious and may it prosper the primacy of the dharma. The first verse is devoted to the infinite number of absent Jinas in other continents of which there is no knowledge ; the rest is in praise of the holy writ. 1 YS, pp. 642-6; LV, pp. 96&-io6a. 197 THE CAITYA-VANDANA 5. SlDDHA-STAVA-DAFTDAKA 1 1. siddhanam buddhanam pdra-gaydnamparampard-gaydnam loy'-aggam uvagayanam namo saya savva-siddhdnam 2. jo devana vi devojam devo panjali namaqisanti tam deva-deva-mahiyam sirasa vande Mahamram 3. ekko vi namokkdro jina-vara-vasahassa Vaddhamdnassa sainsdra-sagarao tarei naram va narim va 4. Ujjenta-sela-sihare dikkha nanam nisihiya jassa tam dhamma-cakkavattim Aritthanemim namamami 5. cattari attha dasa do y a vandiya jina-vara caumsam paramattha-nitthiy * -attha siddha siddhim mama disantu Praise to the siddhas, the enlightened ones who have gone to the further shore, who have gone there by stages, who have reached the summit of the worlds, praise always to all siddhas, I bow down my head to Mahavira, who is the god of gods, who is adored by lords of gods, and whom gods worship joining their hands. Even one namaskara offered to the excellent Jina Vardhamana will carry a man or a woman across the ocean of the cycle of transmigration. I worship Aristanemi that oecumenical monarch of the sacred doctrine who on the summit of the Ujjayanta mountain received the initiation and attained to kevala-jhdna and to moksa. May the twenty-four siddhas — the twenty-two Jinas and the two others who have been celebrated-— whose significance is firmly estab- lished in reality, show me final release. These verses make up the siddhi-stava ; and the dandaka is completed by an invocation of the vaiyavrttya-karas which is sometimes styled the sura-smrti-siitra, veyavacca-garanam santi-gardnam sammad-ditthi-samahi-garanam karemi haussaggam I make the kayotsarga for those who render service, who create tranquillity, who create absorption in right belief. Hemacandra explains that the parampard-gatdnam of verse 1 refers to the progression through the gunasthdna , the Jina is called devanam deva because he is worshipped by devas such as the Bhavana-vasis and he is also worshipped by the deva-devas such as 3 akra. He is called Mahavira because he directs (irayati) to moksa. To the words narim va there attaches a special importance. In this connexion both Haribhadra and Hemacandra quote a passage from the lost Yapaniya-tantra stressing that women equally with men 1 Yg, pp. 646-53; LV, pp. 1066-1186. 19$ JAINA YOGA can reach the summit of the religious life. Hemacandra says that the last two verses of the siddha-stava are not, in the opinion of some authorities, an essential part of the ritual but may be omitted. When the siddha-stava-dandaka and the accompanying kdyot- sarga are completed the worshipper is again to recite the Sakra-stava and then, making the mukta-snkti-mudrd to pronounce the pram- dhana-sutra: 1. jay a viya-raya jaga-guru hon mama tuha ppahavao bhayavani bhava-nivveo magganusariya ittha-phala-siddhi 2. loga-viruddha-ccao guru-jana-piia pad -atlha-karanam ca suha-guru-jogo tav-vayana-sevana a-bhavam akhanda Hail, Jina, preceptor of the world, through your grace, blessed lord, may I achieve these things : disgust for the world, regular pursuit of the right path, attainment of desired results, abandonment of whatever is ill- famed in the world, respect for preceptors and parents, practice of help to others, attachment to a good guru, and full obedience to his words for all existence. It is evident from this description of the ritual that a considerable amount of time is required to carry out the caitya-vandana . In theory the layman should imitate the monk in performing it seven times a day, or if that is not possible five times, or if that too is beyond his powers, at least three times — at dawn, noon, and dusk. Not surprisingly therefore from an early date an abbreviated ritual is admitted. Three possibilities are in fact envisaged; 1 (i) the best (uttama)— the complete ritual of the five dandakas preceded by the airyapathiki-pratikramana ; (ii) the next best (madhyama) — this is considered to be either one chant ( dandaka ) (the arhac-caitya-stava), and one verse (staff); or two dandakas (arhac-caitya-stava and £akr a- stava), and two stutis ; (iii) the least satisfactory (jaghanya) — the namaskara alone, or the Sakra-stava alone. 1 CVBh 23; Ratnasekhara, Sraddha-vidhi , p. 56 b) Vandhcinci-vidhanci- pancasaka, 2. C 199 ) THE VANDANAKA By its basic meaning of reverent salutation (vandana or vandanaka), the third avasyaka would apply equally to the worship paid to the Jina, to the guru, or to the sacred scriptures; but though the Vandana-vidhana-pancasaka , for example, is actually devoted to the caitya-vandana, this term is usually specialized in the sense of guru-vandana. In his explanation of the subject Hemacandra 1 notes that, although in the texts quoted by him the person perform- ing the vandanaka is always referred to as a monk, the ritual can equally well be carried out by a layman ; yet it has to be admitted that of all the elements transferred from the monastic ritual this has been the least successfully accommodated to the sravakacara. In the form in which it appears in the works of Hemacandra 2 and Devendra 3 the ritual has been subdivided into twenty-five essential constituents or avasyakas (not of course to be confused with the six daily necessary duties). The Digambaras, though not adhering to this figure, give a very similar classification: gvETAMBARA DlGAMBARA 2 avanamana 1 yatha-jata 12 avartana or avarta 4 siras, or siro-’vanati 3 g u P ta 2 pravesa 1 niskramana 2 nisadya or asana 1 yatha-jata 12 avarta 4 namaskara or pranama 3 suddhi Hemacandras’s list is in fact, save for the last three items which are not counted by the Digambaras, identical with those given by Samantabhadra* and Camundaraya. 5 The ritual passage to be recited by Svetambaras during the vandanaka is known as the dvadasavarta-vandanaka-sutra or (from the phrase of address which recurs in it) ksama-sramana. It runs as follows: 6 icchami khama-samano vandium jdvanijjde nisihiyae (the guru: chan - dend) anujanaha me miy y -oggaham (the guru : anujdnaini) msihi aho kdyam 1 YS iii. 130 (p. 679). 2 YS iii. 130 (pp. 659-86). 3 Guru-vandana-bhasya, 4 RK v. 18. 5 CS, p. 69. 6 Both text and translation of this ritual passage are given with extensive explanatory details in Leumann, op. cit., pp. 7-10. 200 JAINA YOGA kdya - . ' 7 7 7 7 . . ■ “* 7 * ' 7 ’ 7 . ' “ : 1 7 . 7 dwasc ■ ■ ■■ vattai) javanijjam ca bhe (the guru : evam ) khdmemi khamd-samano devasi- yam vaikkamam (the guru : ahmn avi khdmemi) avassiyae padikkamdmi khamd-samananam devasiyde dsdyanae iettis ’ annayarae jam kiinci micchae mana-dnkkadae vaya-dukkadae kaya-dukkadae kohae manae mayae lohhae savva-kaliyae savva-micchovayarae savva-dhammaikkamanae jo me aiydro kao tassa khamd-samano padikkamamininddmigarihami appanam vosirdmi. I desire to worship you, forbearing monk, 1 with very intense con- centration. (The guru: Willingly.) Allow me to enter the measured space. ( The guru : I allow you.) Allow my bodily contact on the lower part of your body. Please suffer this annoyance. You will have spent the whole day fortunately little disturbed. (The guru: Yes.) You are making spiritual progress. ( The guru : Yes and so are you.) You are unperturbed by your sense organs } (The guru: Yes.) I ask pardon, forbearing monk, for my daily transgressions. (The guru: I too ask pardon.) Necessarily I make pratikramana to you, forbearing monk, for any day-by-day lack of respect, for any of the thirty-three aidtands , anything done amiss through mind, speech, or body, through anger, pride, deceit, or greed, through false behaviour and neglect of the sacred doctrine at any time; whatever offence may have been committed by me, forbearing monk, I confess and reprehend and repent of it and cast aside my past self. The stages or sthanas of the vandanaka are marked by the re- sponses (abhildpa) of the guru, which have been given the following labels, taken from the expressions used in the text : (1) iccha; (4) yatra; (2) anujhapana; (5) yapana; (3) avyabadha; (6) aparadha-ksamana. The following description of the ritual is furnished by Hemacan- dra : as he intends it to apply to the lay life the word sisya (neophyte) is here throughout replaced by ‘layman’ : The layman who wishes to perform the vandanaka waits some distance away from the monk, holding a rajo-harana in his hand and wearing a mukha-vastrika , which he has subjected to pratilek- hana . He begins to recite the formula and when the guru says ( chandeiia 5 he makes the first avanamana or reverence and comes up to him making pratilekhana and pramarjana. Putting his rajo-harana on the ground close to the monk and taking off his mukha-vastrika , he leaves it on his left knee. He then touches the 1 This rendering is chosen to harmonize with Hemacandra’s interpretation. THE VANDANAKA 201 rajo-harana with his hands and then his own forehead. Six avartas — this is the name given to a gesture in which the joined palms of the hands are moved from right to left — are made whilst he slowly repeats the third sthana. Then keeping his gaze fixed on the guru and making the anjali he continues to recite. The movement of hands between rajo-harana and forehead is resumed as the recita- tion continues until he has completed the sixth sthana . At the words khamemi khama-samano he applies both his hands and his forehead to the rajo-harana and when reaches the phrase tassa khama-samano padikkamami he gets up and moves out of the proximity of the monk. After this exit and a second entry he re- peats the same ritual. Hemacandra’s description apparently refers to the third variety of vandanaka mentioned at the commencement of Devendra’s Guru-vandana-bhasya, 1 where the following types are listed: (i) spheta (Prakrit phitta) — consisting of inclinations of the head (addressed to the congregation of monks) ; (ii) chobha — a double recitation of the ksama-sramana (addressed to ordinary individual monks) ; (iii) dvadasavarta—t he full ritual, this too being repeated (destined for ascetics of higher standing). Certain elucidations of the ritual are available from the texts particularly from Hemacandra 2 and from Siddhasena Suri’s com- mentary on the Pravacana-saroddhara. 3 Thus the expression ksama-sramana is understood by the former as implying that an ascetic is possessed of the ten elements making up the dharma the first of which is ksama ‘forbearance’. One avanamana or obeisance is made at the end of the first sthana in each recitation of the ksama-sramana. By yatha-jata is meant the full accoutrement of the monk: rajo-harana (the little broom that is used to carry out pratndrjana ), mukha-vastrikd (the strip of cloth worn in front of the mouth), and the pieces of material allowed — at least by the ^vetambaras — for clothing. The monastic initia- tion is conceived of as a second birth, the hands clasped in the anjali being held to symbolize the folded hands of the child issuing from the womb. Whether the layman should make use of the rajo- harana and mukha-vastrikd , the special symbols of the ascetic con- dition, is sometimes questioned but the Svetambara texts used in * Guru-vandcma-bha$ya> i. 2 iii. 130 (PP* 665-76). 3 PS 93~* 74- P 0 737 202 JAINA YOGA this study depict them as essential in a number of rites. The six avartas of each repetition are to accompany the following words or phrases of the ritual: aho, kayam y kaya-samphasam, jatta bhe } javanijjam bhe y two being assigned to the last. Two sir as (inclina- tion of the head) are to be made in each repetition of the ritual : one by the layman when he recites khamemi khama-samano devasiyam vaikkamam and one by the monk when he replies aham avi khd- memi tume. At the first sthana of the ksama-sramana the monk may, if he is not in a position at the moment to accept the vandanaka, reply tivihena (‘Make your reverence in mind, speech, and body’) thereby cutting short the ritual. The repetition which is character- istic of the full ritual is explained on the analogy of an envoy bring- ing a message to a king and making obeisance both before and after speaking. Other elements of the vandanaka are given the form of numerical apothegms, in particular the thirty-two faults (dosas) 1 and the thirty-three failures to express respect (asdtands) 2 but, devoted as these are to the minutiae of monkish life, they cannot be said to have any real existence in the lay ritual though enumerated by Hemacandra and Devendra. It will be enough to mention here the division of th gurv-asatanas into three types : 3 (i) most conspicuous (utkrsta) — those concerned with actions contrary to the guru’s command ; (ii) next most conspicuous (madhyama) — those referring to contact with impurities ; (iii) least conspicuous (jaghanya) — those concerned with touch- ing the feet or other limbs of the guru. The vandanaka is associated with a number of other rites such as the pratikramana, in fact it might be said to be implicit in any rite which involves the concourse of the guru. If no monk is present a convenient device for which canonical authority is claimed* exists to ensure the satisfactory completion of the rite : this is the fiction of the sthapanacarya. Just as the Jina can be conceived in terms of nama, sthapana , dravya , and bhdva so can these categories be applied to the acdrya, and the sthapanacarya will then signify the guru represented by a statue or by some symbolic object. To this the worshipper performs 1 Y 3 iii. 130 (pp. 661-4). a Ibid. (pp. 676-8). 3 £raddha-vidhi, p. 71 a. 4 j§rDK 230. THE VANDANAKA 203 the vandanaka , keeping the guru present in his mind. Special asatanas are devised to cover actions implying lack of respect to the sthapanacarya . 1 * 3 The practice is clearly set out in Devendra’s $raddha-dina-Jirtya z and Hemacandra 5 had earlier laid down that one should imagine in one’s mind an embodiment of the guru if he is not himself present {guru-virahe guru-sthapanam manasikrtva). THE P RAT I KR AM AN A AND ALOCANA The pratikramana, the fourth of the avaivakas, generally linked with an avowal of past transgressions ( alocana ) is a manifestation of contrition and desire for amendment expressed by the recitation of certain confession formulae.* Various types of pratikramana y mainly based on the period of time to which the confession refers, are recognized: 5 (1) performed at nightfall and referring to the past day ( daiva - sikd ) ; (2) performed at dawn and referring to the past night (prabha- tika or ratrika ) ; (3) covering the past paksa or half-month ( paksika ) ; (4) covering the past four months ( caturmasika ); (5) covering the past year (varsika) ; (6) referring to the unwitting harm caused by all movement ( airyapathiki ). The acceptance of pratikramana only as an annual duty or as a duty to be carried out only during the additional leisure of the caturmasa or rainy season is a characteristic of later texts. 6 It will be convenient to deal first with the airyapathiki-pratik- ramanap which has a special importance notably as forming the prelude to the caitya-vandana . The airyapathiki-sutra runs as follows : icchdmi padikkamium iriyd-vahiyde virahanae gamarp -agamane pdn'- akkamane biy’-akkamane hariy' -akkamane osay'-uttinga-panaga-dagp- matti-makkada-santdna-satnkamane je me jlvd virdhiyd eg’-indiyd 1 Sraddha-vidhiy p. 736. z grDK 230, where the term sSri, explained as sthapanacarya , is used. 3 YS iii. 124 (p. 61 1). 4 See Schubring, Die Lehre der Jainas, p. 177* s Y£ iii. 130 (p. 687). 6 Sraddha-vidhi, p. rs8&. 7 Y£ iii. 124 (pp. 605-7). 204 JAINA YOGA he-indiyd te-indiyd caur-mdiya pane’ -indiya abhihaya vattiyd lesiya sahghaiya sahghattiya pariyaviya kildmiyd uddaviya thanao thanam samkamiyd jiviyao vavaroviya tassa micchami dukkadam I want to make pratikramana for injury on the path of my movement, in coming and in going, in treading on living things, in treading on seeds, in treading on green plants, in treading on dew, on beetles, on mould, on moist earth, and on cobwebs ; whatever living organisms with one or two or three or four or five senses have been injured by me or knocked over or crushed or squashed or touched or mangled or hurt or affrighted or removed from one place to another or deprived of life — may all that evil have been done in vain. Hemacandra says that irya-patha may be taken in the literal sense as ‘the path of one’s going 5 or it may be understood to mean ‘the line of conduct of an ascetic 5 the primary infraction of which would be the destruction of any form of life: the import of the siitra remains in either case the same. The avasyaya (Prakrit osayci) is explained as a jala-visesa; the uttinga is an insect of the form of a dung-beetle which makes holes in the ground; panaka is ex- plained as panca-varnolli; the moist earth will contain ap-kayas and prthvi-kayas. The phrase which recurs in all the pratikramana formulae micchami dukkadam is given its proper sanskritization mithya me duskrtam (‘may the evil of it be in vain 5 ) but at the same time the individual aksaras are said to have the following symbolic meaning : 1 mi — miu-maddava chd—dosdnam chayana mi y me — a-merde thiya du — dugahehami appanam ka — kadam me pdvam ‘gentleness 5 ‘the veiling of faults 5 ‘abiding in the limitless 5 ‘I loath myself 5 ‘I have committed sin 5 da — devemi tam uvasamenam ‘I go beyond it through attaining to calm 5 In general, apart from the recitation of the airyapathiki formula, the performance of pratikramana requires the presence of a guru. The ritual passages used for this and for the alocana are given below in the sequence in which they normally follow the vandanaka formula, beginning with the aticaralocana : 2 iccha-karena samdisaha hhagavam devasiyam dloium (the guru : aloaha ) iccham aloemi jo me devasio aiyaro kao kaio vaio manasio ussutto ummaggo akappo akaranijjo dujjhdyo dwovicintio anayaro anicchiyawo asavaga- 1 Y& iii, 124 (P> 607). 2 Y£ iix. 130 (pp. 679-82). THE PRATIKRAMAIS'A AND ALOCANA 205 paoggo ndne damsane cdrittacaritte sue samdiye tinham guttvnam caunham kasayanam pahcanham anu-vvaydnam tinham guna-vvaydnam caunham sikkhd-vayanam barasavihassa savaga-dhammassa jam khandiyam jam virdhiyam tassa micchdmi dukkadam. Instruct me, lord, at my own desire to make dlocand for the day. {The guru : Do so.) I wish to make dlocand: whatever fault has been committed by me during the day in body, speech, or mind, in contravention of the scriptures and of right conduct, unfitting and improper to be done, ill meditated and ill conceived, immoral and undesirable, unbecoming for a layman, in regard to knowledge and philosophy and the lay life and the holy writ and the samayika , and whatever transgression or infraction I may have committed in respect of the three guptis and four kasayas, and the five anu-vratas , three guna-vratas, and four iityd-vratas, that is to say, the layman’s twelvefold rule of conduct — may that evil have been done in vain. Hemacandra explains that cdritracaritra is equivalent to desa- virati. Khandita implies a partial violation of the religious duties and mradhita a more serious violation but neither of them amounts to a complete bhaiiga. After this dlocand formula the worshipper is to recite the prati- kramana-bija-sutra : 1 savvassa vi devasiya duccintiya dubbhasiya duccetthiya iccha-kdrena sandisaha bhagavam (the guru : padikkamdha ) tassa micchdmi dukhadam Instruct me at my own desire to mdkepratikramana for all that I have done amiss this day in thought, in speech, and in act {The guru: Do so) — may that evil have been done in vain. Then comes the request for forgiveness, the ksdmand-sutra: z iccha-kdrena sandisaha bhagavain ahbhutthio ’ mhi abbhintara-devasiyam khdmeum iccham khdmemi devasiyam jam kimei apattiyam para-pattiyam bhatte pane vinaye veyavacce alave samlave ucc'-asane saml-asane antara - bhasae uvari-bhdsae jam kimei majjha mnaya-parihinam suhumam va bayaram va tubbhe janaha aham najdndmi tassa micchdmi dukkadam Instruct me, lord, at my own desire; I am come forward to seek for- giveness for what is within the day: I want to seek forgiveness for what- ever unfriendly or excessively unfriendly thing I have done this day in regard to eating and drinking, in regard to vinaya and vaiyavrttya > in regard to speech and conversation, in regard to seating oneself at a higher or at the same level as the guru, or in interrupting him when he 1 Ibid. (pp. 682-3). a Ibid * (PP* 68 3 -S)* ao6 JAINA YOGA is speaking, or in speaking louder than he, may whatever offence against vinaya, great or small, which you know and I do not know, have been done in vain. In all these formulae the word daivasika will be replaced by the appropriate variant if the pratikramana refers to the night or to some other period. The great importance of the, pratikramana in Jainism is evident from the way in which the meaning of the term is extended to cover all edifying religious practices, the scope of the numerous prati - kramana-siitras being very wide indeed. 1 Amongst the faults to be avowed are all forbidden things done and all duties left undone, all infringements of the twelve vratas , all offences against the ratna- traya, all the evil results of parigraha and arambha , all actions motivated by passion and hate, all partiality for false creeds and dissemination of false dogmas, and all wrong done in the course of one’s daily business or one’s household duties. The best-known pratikramana commentary is the V andaru-vrtti of Devendra. Here as elsewhere pratikramana for the eighteen sources of sin (papa-sthanas) is recommended. It may therefore be not inappropriate to list these here: 2 (1) killing (j brani-vadha, himsa) (2) lyin g (asatya) (3) thieving ( adattadana ) (4) unchastity (abrahma, maithuna) (5) acquisitiveness ( parigraha ) (6) anger ( krodha ) (7) pride (mdna) (8) deceit (maya) (9) greed ( lobha ) (10) attachment (raga, preman) (11) hatred (dvesa) (12) disputation ( kalaha ) (13) false accusation ( abhyakhyana ) (14) backbiting (paisunya) (15) denigration (parivada, ninda) 1 The pratikramana is sometimes given a more ornate literary form as in. the elegant Paficavimiatika of Ratnakara Suri. In this poem the Jina is invoked almost as a personal god. a See PS 1351-3 and iorDK 300-3. I the themes of the five anu-vratas | the four kasayas THE PRATIKRAMANA AND ALOCANA 207 (16) depression and elation ( arati-rati ) (17) deceitful speech (mdya-mrsd) (18) false belief {mithyatva). In another version 1 of the eighteen papa-sthanas eating by night ( ratri-bhojana ) is inserted in the list after parigraha and arati-rati omitted. The keynote of the pratikramana is best expressed in the well- known verse from the sutra: khdmemi savva-five same five khamantu me metti me savva-bhuesu veram majjha na kenavi 2 I ask pardon of all living creatures, may all of them pardon me, may I have friendship with all beings and enmity with none. It is probably because in this way the pratikramana represents the pervasion of the mind by the feeling of ahimsd that it comes to be regarded as the central feature of the avasyakas. Like the other avasyakas it may be performed either in the temple or in a posadha- sala, or in the presence of a monk or at home, and like them it re- quires the elimination of all arta-dhyana . It is sometimes said that like pratyakhydna it is best expressed three times, first mentally when alone, then before the image of the Jina, and finally aloud before the guru. It is not always necessarily confined to past time and may therefore overlap with pratyakhydna. Together with alocana it is often given the designation of pray a- scitta but the kdyotsarga too is a form of prayaicitta. THE PRATYAKHYANA This, the fifth, or, according to the Digambaras, the sixth, dvasyaka has been defined by Amitagati 3 as the avoidance of what is unfitting in order to prevent the commission of sin in the future. In a sense it is the equivalent of pratikramana translated into future time. Ideally it should be performed three times 4 in solitude, before the Jina image and in the presence of a guru when it is linked with the vandanaka. 1 Siddhasena Suri on PS 3 &r (A) viii. 35 - 2 Pratikramana-sutra , 49. ♦ Sraddha-vidhi , p. 73 &- ao8 JAINA YOGA Pratyakhyana 1 2 3 4 is said to be of two kinds according to whether it relates to the mula-gunas (i.e. in the case of laymen the ann- vratas) or to the uttar a-gunas (i.e. the gitna- and siksa-vratas ), many of which may in fact be regarded as expressions of pratyakhyana ; that is particularly true of the dig-, desavakasika-, bhogopabhoga -, and posadhopavasa-watas. Renunciation of any form of enjoyment is implicit in the concept but in practice it most often implies abstention from food, or from a particular kind of food, for a cer- tain period of time. There are traditionally ten categories of pratyakhyana ; but Hemacandra, 1 recognizing that these are without relevance for the lay doctrine, has preferred to discuss only the ninth and tenth: sahketa-pratyakhyana and addha-pratyakhyana , which, he says, are in daily use. The former, as its name indicates, is symbolic; the devotee refrains from taking food for as long, for example, as he keeps his hand clenched, and by this renunciation he recalls his mind to his religious duties. Eight types of sahketa-pratyakhyana are listed: 1 (1) ahgusfha — ‘as long as I do not unclasp my thumb’ ; (2) musti — ‘as along as I do not unclench my hand’ ; (3) granthi — ‘as long as I do not loosen this knot’ ; (4) gvh a — r (A) xiii. 83. 7 BhS(V)s99. 8 SDhA ii. 39. 238 JAINA YOGA TAPAS This term would seem to embrace any form of self-discipline or training for the spiritual life. By the Digambaras it is accounted the sixth of the daily karmans and by both Digambaras and &vetam- baras is held to be either external ( bahya ) or internal (abhyantara). The six varieties of the latter are : l (1) Confession to a guru ( prayascitta ); this includes prati- kramana and alocana. (2) Expression of respect to ascetics {vinaya). (3) Rendering of personal services to ascetic ( vaiyavrttya ). (4) Studying, memorizing and expounding, the sacred lore (smdhydya). (5) Abandonment of the body (utsarga, vyavasarga). (6) Meditation ( dhyana ), i.e. concentration on one thought for up to a maximum time of one muhurta. There is some confusion in this list. Smdhydya is also of its own right the fourth of the six daily karmans ; and vinaya and vaiyavrttya together make up bhakti ) which is one of the five bhusanas of samya - ktva . 2 The term vaiyavrttya-vrata is also used by some writers as a synonym of dana-vrata. The six varieties of bahya-tapas are : 3 (1) Fasting {anasana). (2) Taking only part of a full meal ( unaudarya y avamaudarya ). (3) Limiting of food according to the range of choice or accord- ing to the time, place, and posture in which it is offered (vrtti-samksepa, vrtteh sahkhya). (4) Abstention from luxury foods (rasa-parityagd). (5) Avoidance of all that can lead to temptation (samlinata, vivikta-sayyasana) . (6) Mortification of the flesh (kaya-klesa), e.g. by heat, cold, insect bites. The first four of these are variants of fasting and go together with others mentioned in the sections on pratyakhydna ' and posadhopavasa-vrata. Bahya-tapas is virtually synonymous with fasting, even the expression kaya-klesa being used in that 1 PASU igg; DK, pt. ii, p. 76. See Schubring, op. cit, pp. 196-7. 2 YS ii. 16. 3 PASU 198; SrDK, pt. ii, p. 76. Sec Schubring, op. cit., p. 196. TAPAS »39 sense by Vasunandin. 1 In fact asceticism for the Jaina lies first and foremost in depriving oneself of food, its extreme expression being found in sallekhana. DHYANA Du YANA, one of the forms of abhyantara-tapas is defined in the Tattvartha-sutra 2 as ‘the concentration of thought on a single object for up to one muhurta ’. It may be of four types, the first and second being inauspicious ( aprasasta ) and the third and fourth auspicious (prasastaf and each type is again subdivided to cover four possible themes : 4 x. Painful (arta ) : (a) contact with what is unpleasant (amanoj na-samprayoga) and desire for its removal. ‘What is unpleasant’ would cover hostile persons, material discomforts, hurtful words, and disagreeable emotions ; (b) separation from what is pleasant (; manojna-viyoga ), for ex- ample, through losing one’s loved ones or one’s wealth, and desire to get them back again; (c) the sensation of suffering (< vedana ) as from an illness and the desire to rid oneself of it; (d) hankering for sensual pleasures (nidana). The same term of course recurs as one of the three salyas and as an aticara of the sallekhana-vrata . 2 . PI armful (ran dr a) : (a) the infliction of hurt (himsa) ; (b) falsehood ( anrta ) ; (c) theft ( steya ) ; (d) the hoarding of wealth (t dhana-samraksana)* i. Moral (dharmya): (а) discerning the command of the Jina ( ajna-vicaya ); (б) discerning the nature of what is calamitous (< apaya-vicaya); 1 &r (V) 351. *T(P)ix. 2 7 . 3 CS, p. 74. + Sr (A) xv. 9-15; T(P)ix. 38-39. . .. s Hemacandra (YS iii. 73) covers arta- and raudra-dhyana only, in discussing the sravakacara. a 4 o JAINA YOGA (c) discerning the consequences of karma ( vipaka-vicaya ) ; (d) discerning the structure of the universe (samsthana-vicaya) . 1 4, Refulgent (sukla) : (a) consideration of diversity (prthaktva-vitarka) ; (b) consideration of unity ( ekatva-vitarka ) ; (c) maintenance of subtle activity (suksma-kriya-pratipati ) ; (d) complete destruction of activity ( vyuparata-kriya-nivar - tint). Together arta-dhymia and randra-dhyana constitute apadhyana, which is one of the manifestations of anartha-danda. Strictly they should apply only to the lay life since a monk who gives way, for example, to raudr a- dhyana has already lapsed from his vocation. 1 2 The other forms of dhyana are proper for an ascetic and sukla- dhyana is in fact only possible for one who has reached a very high stage of spiritual development. For this reason doubtless some writers such as Camundaraya 3 and Asadhara treat the whole subject as belonging to the yaty-dcdra . Amitagati 4 gives to the topic of dhyana a theoretical treatment parallel to that of dana. Four aspects are considered: (i) the meditator ( dhydtr ), who must be pure in heart; (ii) the object of meditation (dhyeya) ; (iii) the technique ( vidhi ) ; (iv) the result obtained ( phala) y which is svarga or moksa. Camundaraya 5 has a rather similar classification. It is only the second of these aspects that is of any practical significance, four objects of dhyana being distinguished under this head: 6 (i) meditation on the syllables of the sacred mantras ( pada - stha ) ; (ii) meditation on the group of magic powers possessed by the Jina (pinda-stha) ; (iii) meditation on the form of the Jina materialized in the statue (rupa-stha ) ; (iv) meditation on the Jina as a disembodied arhat (rupatita). 1 There is a special association of svddhyaya with the dharmya-dhyand , See P- 237. 2 T (P) ix. 35. 3 CS, pp. 74-95* 4 (A) xv. 23 . 3 CS, p. 74. 6 Sr (A) xv. 30-56. DHYANA 2 4I Reduced to a triad by the omission of the third type of meditation, this enumeration finds a place in the conventional cctitya-vandana ritual of the 3vetambaras under the designation of the avastha- trika and again in the Digambara ritual with Somadeva 1 and Vasu- nandin. 2 VINAYA AND VAIYAVRTTYA Both of these are classed as forms of abhyantara-tapas , and both relate initially to the monastic life. They may also be viewed as the twin manifestations of that devotion ( bhakti ) to the sacred doctrine which is listed by Hemacandra as one of the bhusanas of samyaktva * Vinaya , originally the outward expression of respect for a hier- archical superior, is divided by Vasunandin 4 — and, in his section on yaty-acara , by Camundaraya 5 — into five categories following the Tattvartha-sutrcfi (which has four): (i) respect for right belief ( darsana-vinaya ) expressed by ful- filling the gunas of samyaktva ; (ii) respect for right knowledge (jnana-vinaya) and for those who are its repositories ; (iii) respect for right conduct (caritra-vmaya) ; (iv) respect for ascetic practices (tapo-vinaya ) ; (v) respect expressed, for example, to a guru by considerate atten- tions (upacara- vinaya), which may take the form of a favour- able mental attitude, of courteous words, or of appropriate actions. This last aspect — the kaya-vinaya — includes a num- ber of features which have been given a numerical classifica- tion by Hemacandra 7 as the eightfold upacara-vidhi; for the most part these are also mentioned by Vasunandin and Camun- daraya: (a) rising from one’s place ( abhyutthana ) ; (b) going towards him ( abhiyana ); (c) making the anjali (anjali-karana) ; (d) oneself offering him a seat ( svayam asana-dhaukana ) ; (e) acceptance by him of the seat ( dsanabhigraha ) ; 1 Handiqui, pp. 373-83. 2 (V), 458-76. 3 YS ii. 16. + £r (V) 330. 5 CS, pp. 65-66. 6 T (P) ix. 33. 7 YS ii. 16 (p. 185). JAINA YOGA (/) reverent salutation (vandana ) ; (g) waiting upon him (p ary upas ana ) ; (h) accompanying him as he leaves (anngamana). Yasunandin 1 also here includes some actions which might more properly be described as forms of vaiyavrttya , such as massaging the limbs and preparing a bed. The upacara-vinaya just described (another form of which is to be found in the nine puny as 2 pre- scribed for welcoming an atithi to whom dana is given) is applicable when a gum is present, but similar respect may be shown when he is absent by mental reverence and words of praise. Like the vandanaka ritual (itself an expression of vinaya) vinaya is envisaged as rendered by monk to monk or by layman to monk. Vasunandin, 3 however, goes a step further by laying down that laymen may fittingly make kaya-vinaya both to ascetics and to laymen. A similar development, far more important in its implications, has also occurred with the practice of vaiyavrttya, which is the term used in the canonical texts for bodily services rendered to monks, in particular attendance on the sick. The traditional enumeration 4 of the objects of vaiyavrttya. is worth noting : (1) acarya — the head of a community; (2) upadhyaya — a preceptor; (3) tapasvin — monk engaged in fasting or other austerities; (4) saiksa , Hksaka — neophyte; (5) gfana — a sick monk; (6) gana — a group of monks senior not in age but in religious knowledge; (7) kida — a group of monks with the same acarya; (8) sangha — the community of monks ; (9) sadhu — a monk of long standing; (10) samanojna — a distinguished or highly respected monk. Amitagati 5 has introduced certain variations into this list: the sadhu figures as a vrddha (aged monk) and kula and samanojna dis- appear to make way for pravartaka and gana-raksa, which appear to indicate special types of acarya. He particularly enjoins the practice of vaiyavrttya in times of famine or epidemic disease or when the monks are harassed by parisahas or by thieves or rulers. 1 Sr (V) 328. 2 Sr (V) 225. * T (P) ix. 24. 3 Sr (V) 330. 5 Sr (A) xiii. 62-64. VINAYA AND VAIYAVRTTYA 243 From this list it is clear that the scope of vaiyavrttya covers all reciprocal assistance within the community of monks and is not confined to services rendered by an inferior to a superior. It also includes services rendered by laymen (for whom this represents a privilege) to individual ascetics or to the community of monks : the concept is that expressed by the word yati-vibamana. 1 * It is prob- ably the term sangha interpreted already by Siddhasena Ganin z as the catur-varna-sangha (the fourfold community of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen) that is at the origin of a further extension of the meaning which is fully manifest in Vasunandin’s description. For all those, he says , 3 within the fourfold community who are very young or very old or afflicted by disease or physically ex- hausted vaiyavrttya is to be performed : this will include the massag- ing of arms, legs, back, and head, asperging, anointing with oil, and application of cooling pastes; if they are dirty the filth will be removed and whilst their bodies are washed their beds will be cleaned and made ready ; and food and drink and medicines will be provided for them. Such actions bring their own reward both in this life and in succeeding lives. The mention of providing food recalls another aspect of vaiya- vrttya that comes to the fore in the Cantra-sara . 4 When monks are assailed by diseases, pansahas , or false beliefs ( mithyatva ) prasuka medicaments and food and drink, shelter and bedding, blankets and religious accessories (dharmopakarana) are to be given them to help to strengthen them in the faith; these amount in fact to almsgiving. With this in mind it is not difficult to understand that in the Ratna-karanda 5 vaiyavrttya is used as a synonym of dana. The idea of community self-help, implicit in Vasunandin’s con- cept of vaiyavrttya , more often finds expression with the Svetam- baras in the discussion of vatsalya , one of the gunas or angas of samyaktva. All co-religionists, says Devendra , 6 are to be regarded as dear friends with whom disputes and quarrels are unthinkable. He who strikes a fellow Jaina in anger is guilty of an asatam — a sacrilege. Money or effort expended in the interests of one’s co- religionists is always well spent whether they belong to one’s own country and caste or whether they have come from afar. At the same time the individual has a duty to look to the moral 1 grDK 243. 2 T (S) ix. 24 (p. 237). 3 f r ( v ) 337-4°- 4 CS, p. 67. 5 RK iv. 2i. 6 SrDK 198-206. 244 JAINA YOGA welfare of his fellows. Those who are lukewarm in their zeal for the performance of religious duties should be stimulated in every possible way, even if encouragements or admonitions meet with a testy answer from the person to whom they are addressed. They are to be prodded with questions such as: ‘Why, my friend, did I not see you yesterday in the temple or in th e posadha-sala or at the feet of the sadhuV in order to save them from the grip of pramadad THE ANUPREKSAS The subject of the twelve anupreksas 2 or themes of meditation has already been treated in many works on Jainism and it would be otiose to discuss it here, 3 though certain writers on sravakacara cover the topic. These are mainly Digambaras — Kundakunda, Karttikeya, Somadeva, Amitagati, 4 Asadhara, s Camundaraya 5 — but Svetambara works dealing with the subject as an aspect of monastic discipline include the Yoga-sastra . 6 These apply to the anupreksas the designation bhavana (not to be confused with the twenty-five bhavanas of the mahd-matas nor with the sixteen Digambara bhavanas). Here, for the purpose of comparison, are the twelve anupreksas : (1) on impermanence (unity a) ; (2) on helplessness ( asarana ) ; (3) on the cycle of transmigration (samsara) ; (4) on solitariness ( ekatva ) ; (5) on the separateness of the self and the body (a?iyatva); (6) on the foulness of the body (asucya); (7) on the influx of karma (dsrava) ; (8) on the checking of karma (samvara) ; (9) on the elimination of karma (nirjara) ; (10) on the universe (loka)\ (n) on the difficulty of enlightenment (bodhi-durlabha) ; (12) on the preaching of the sacred law (dharma-smkhyatatvd). 1 3 rDK 307-19. 3 For the canonical origins of the anupreksas see Schubring, op. cit. 3 For a comprehensive treatment of the meditations see K. IC. Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture (chap, xi: ‘The anupreksas and Jaina religious poetry’), and A. N. Upadhye, Introduction to KA, pp. 6-43. 4 £jr (A) xiv. 5 The anupreksas are treated both by Camundaraya (CS, pp. 78-93) and Asadhara (Anagdra-dharmdmrta, vi. 57-82) as a feature of yaty-acara. 6 YS iv. 55-110. ( 345 ) THE BHAVANAS B HAVANA — ‘meditation' or ‘contemplation' — is the designation more commonly used by the ^vetambaras for the anupreksas. Some Digambaras, however, apply this name to another series of mental attitudes, sixteen, not twelve, in number. Here is the list of their themes as given by Camundaraya: 1 (1) purity of belief ( darsana-suddhi ); (2) perfection of vinaya ivinaya-sampannata) ; (3) faultless observance of the mat as and the kilos ' 1 ( Hla - vratesv anaticara). Sila here signifies the avoidance of anger and similar virtues; (4) continuous cultivation of knowledge ( abhiksna-jiianopa - y°s a ) ; „ . . , . .... (5) fear of the cycle of reincarnation and its vicissitudes (samvega ) ; (6) the practice of the fourfold dana within the limits of one's power ( saktitas tyaga ) ; (7) the practice of austerities within the limit of one’s power {saktitas tapas). The body is vile but may yet be used as a vehicle for spiritual progress; (8) removing impediments to the practice of austerities by monks {sadhu-sattiadhi) . This is compared to the extinguish- ing of a fire that threatens a storehouse; (9) the tending of ascetics in misfortune (vaiyavrttya-karana); (10) devotion to the Jinas {arhad-bhakti)\ ( 1 1) devotion to the gurus {guru-bhakti); {12) devotion to those learned in holy writ ( bahu-sruta-ohakti ); (13) devotion to the sacred doctrine (pravacana-bhakti)\ , (14) zealous performance of the six necessary duties (avasyaka- (15) glorification of the sacred doctrine ( marga-prabhSvaw ) by tapas Jnana, and ptija; (16) affection towards the expounders, i.e. exemplary ascetics « One wotdd Expect the word Hla here to mean vratas but Camundaraya himself explains it as ‘the avoidance of anger, &c. in order to keep the vratas' (CS, p. 25). 346 JAINA YOGA and laymen 1 2 ( ' pravacana-vatsalya ). (The alternative ex- planation of this bhavana : ‘affection for the sacred doc- trine* seems too nearly a repetition of pravacana-bhakti to be tenable.) These bhavanas though they are mentioned both by Asadhara* and by Medhavin 3 as types of meditation are in fact totally distinct from the anupreksas . 4 5 They have rather the nature of those bhavanas which are designed to fortify the maha-matas , that is they are observances to be followed in order to achieve progress in the spiritual life. They represent in fact a transcription of the passage of the Tattvartha-sutra 5 which lists the asravas which bring about the auspicious tirthankara-nama~karman, and which Pujyapada, in his commentary, terms the sixteen bhavanas. THE KALAS The seventy-two arts or accomplishments of men belong to the canonical literature and scarcely survive, save as an archaism, in the medieval sravakacaras. Devendra 6 seems to be alone in listing them in full, though Vasunandin 7 ascribes to the inhabitants of the bhoga-bhumis the knowledge of the seventy-two kalas and to their womenfolk the acquaintance with the sixty-four gunas. In view of the abundant literature on the subject it is pointless to detail them here . 8 1 Pujyapada explains as ‘co-religionists’. 2 SDhAvii. 55. 3 &r (M) x. ioo. 4 The anupreksas are treated by Camundaraya under the head of yaty-acara (CS, pp. 78-92) and considered to be an aspect of dharmya-dhydna. 5 T (P) vi. 24. 6 £rDK 106 (pt. i, pp. 265-6). 7 Sr (V) 263. 8 For a full description of the seventy- two kalas and a comparison with the list of sixty-four in the Kama-sutra, see, for example, the article byAmulyachandra Sen in the Calcutta Review, March 1933, pp. 364 ff. ( 247 ) THE SEVEN VYASANAS These are listed as: (1) dicing, gambling (dyuta) ; (2) boozing, drinking alcohol (5 madya , surd ) ; (3) meat-eating (mamsa ) ; (4) whoring (veiya) ; (5) hunting ( kheta , paparddhi , mrgaya) ; (6) thieving (caurya, stena) ; (7) adultery ( para-dara ). By definition these vices are specific forms of papa which entail an evil reincarnation (durgati), generally in hell. 1 In fact some later writers assign each to a special naraka. 2 Amitagati 3 opposes the seven vices to an integral concept of sila^ (the maintenance of all vows assumed) to which they form an impediment. As a category the vyasanas are treated only in the Digambara sravakdcaras , being expressly mentioned by Vasunandin, 5 Aiadhara, 6 and Padmanandin (and by Medhavin, Sakalakirti, and Sivakoti). Without employing this designation, Amitagati 7 covers the same subject in detail. The oldest discussion, of the topic is therefore not earlier than the eleventh century though reference is made to the vyasanas in kaihas , both Svetambara and Digambara, before that date. There is considerable irregularity of treatment in the litera- ture because thieving is already condemned by the third anu- vrata and adultery by the fourth, while eating meat, drinking alcohol, and hunting can all be regarded as violations of ahimsa . Furthermore the Digambara category of the mula-gunas covers the abstention from eating and drinking alcohol and, according to some writers, from gambling. 8 It is on the theme of the vyasanas that the moral teaching of Jainism is most clearly sited in a social context; and this morality 1 Sr (V) 59. 3 Prainottara-sravakacara, xii; Padtnanandi-sravakacara , 12. 3 &r (A) xii. 41-5 3. 4 In Digambara texts the word is of course used as a collective name for the guna-vratas and siksa-vratas but it can also be synonymous with brahmacarya chastity. ' * Sr (V) 60-124. 6 SDhAiii. 16-23. 7 (A) xii. 54-100 and v. 1-26. 8 Hiralal Jain would like to regard the mention by Jinasena of dyuta in his list of the mula-guiias as an upalaksana for the vyasanas , but this view seems hardly tenable. 348 JAINA YOGA is that of the common man who adheres to the conventions of the world, avoiding anything that can evoke obloquy or derision from his neighbours. Even ahimsa is relegated to the background, as, for example, when alcohol is condemned not, as in the earlier texts, because its preparation involves the destruction of life but because intoxication causes a man to act in an indecorous and ridiculous fashion. In some spheres this newer, worldly, morality can lead to contradictions with the older doctrines. Admitting, however reluctantly, a dispensation from perfect chastity for the lay ad- herent, primitive Jainism forbade him intercourse with all women who where the property of others but allowed him to frequent the woman who was common property — the village prostitute. The inclusion of vesya under the seven vyasanas represents in effect, therefore, the revocation of an older dispensation. The conventional description of the seven vices is given by Amitagati, Vasunandin, Aiadhara, Gunabhusana, Sivakoti, and Medhavin in terms so nearly identical that they must be taken from a common source. Dicing, for example, is said to engender anger, delusion, pride, and greed in their most intense forms. Blinded by his infatuation the gambler loses all sense of shame, takes false oaths, and lies so inveterately that even his own mother will not believe him. In a fit of anger he is ready to kill even those nearest to him. So absorbed is he by his vice that he will not heed parents or teachers and will even neglect food and sleep . 1 Meat and alcohol are vikrtis and are given a more extensive treatment from another angle under the heading of the mula-gunas. As a vyasana meat-eating is condemned mainly because it is a concomitant to other vices: in particular it is said to produce an addiction to alcohol, which in itself makes the pursuit of the religious life impossible . 2 The consequences of drunkenness are realistically portrayed. Under the influence of madya a drinker’s intelligence runs away like the wife of a man who has fallen into misfortune. His alcoholic state is manifested in giddiness, lassitude, nausea, trembling fits, red eyes, and unsteadiness of gait. He tries to commit incest with mother or sister or daughter, and treats his servant as if he were a ruler and his ruler as if he were a servant. He falls down in a drunken stupor in the highroad or in his courtyard and when the dogs lick his face and urinate in his mouth he imagines in his 1 &r (V) 60-69; & (A) xi. 54-62. 2 $r(V) 86. THE SEVEN VYASANAS 349 delusion that he is drinking sweet wine. Thieves remove his clothes as he lies there and when he recovers consciousness he stumbles around drunkenly threatening to kill the man who has robbed him. Then, going home in a daze, he takes his own kin for enemies and smashes his own chattels with a stick. By turns he sings, screams, talks slurringly, vomits, tries to dance, gesticulates, uses obscene language, is hilarious, or is plunged in gloom . 1 The vices of meat-eating and drinking are said to be always found in a harlot whilst her body is polluted by the embraces of the base-born. A man who spends even one night with a prostitute eats the leavings of ordinary workpeople and of outcastes and aliens. And if he becomes infatuated with her she will wheedle everything out of him and leave him but skin and bones. To every lover she tells the same story — that he is the only man for her. The love of a harlot means only humiliation for a man however high his birth and talents . 2 When the vice of hunting is considered, the accent shifts back to ahimsa, for this vyasana is said to destroy all compassion. Since a righteous man will not even kill an evildoer if he comes seeking asylum with trna grass between his teeth why should he kill an innocent deer that pastures on grass ? If there is sin in the killing of cows and brahmins, there is sin, too, in the killing of other living beings, and as much of it incurred in one day from hunting as in a long period of time from eating meat and drinking alcohol . 3 The last two vyasanas differ from the other five in being punish- able in a non-Jaina society as crimes, so that they not infrequently bring retribution in the present life. Thus the thief who has taken another man’s property is presented as apprehensively quitting his home, trembling in every limb, and pursuing a circuitous path, always anxious lest he has been seen. His heart patters and his feet stumble. He is obsessed by fear to the point of being unable to sleep because he has taken away either by force or by deceit the property of others, perhaps even of parents, teachers, and friends, unheedful of his good repute in this world or of what awaits him in the next life. If he is caught by the constables he is at once bound with ropes by a low-caste jailer and promenaded around the streets on the back of an ass with the placard: ‘This is a thief, and any other caught like him will receive the same retribution. Then 1 Jar (V) 70-79 ; Jar (A) v. i-ia. z Sr (V) 88-93 5 Sr (A) xi. 63 - 76 . 3 Sr (V) 94-100; 3 r (A) xi. 92-100. C 737 s 25 0 JAINA YOGA he is quickly carried outside the city where the executioners tear out his eyes or amputate his limbs or impale him alive , 1 * Adultery leads to a similar fate, A man who lusts after another’s wife and cannot resist his own desires will sigh, weep, sing, beat his head, fall on the ground, and utter incoherent speech.* Tor- mented by uncertainty whether the woman will accept his advances he cannot sleep or eat and abandoning family traditions gives way to drink. Sometimes he makes advances and is rebuffed and put out of countenance. If he succeeds in waylaying the woman of his choice and taking her by force against her will what pleasure can he derive ? Or if again the woman herself is so lost to shame that she gives herself to him under the impulse of lust what enjoyment will there be in a hurried, furtive union in an empty house or ruined temple ? At the slightest sound he will run away and crouch down, looking in all directions, terrified. And if he is discovered and brought before the royal tribunal he will be castrated and then, like a thief, mounted on an ass and paraded through the city before being executed. He can have no reliance even on the woman with whom he is infatuated, for she who betrays her husband will also betray her lover just as a cat that eats its kittens will certainly eat mice . 3 The cautionary tales related in connexion with the seven vyasanas are as stereotyped as the descriptions and for that reason are worth a mention. They are amongst the best known in Indian literature. For dyuta the example is Yudhisthira; for madya the Yadavas; for mamsa Bakaraksa; for vesya Carudatta; for paparddhi Brahmadatta; for caurya Srlbhuti ; and for para-dara Ravana; while addiction to all seven vices at the same time is personified by Rudradatta. A^adhara 4 (and following him Medhavin ) 5 has conceived of a sub-category of ancillary (sodard) vices, adumbrated rather than systematically set forth under each vyasana : (i) dyiita 6 — gambling for the- sake of amusement (presumably for purely nominal stakes) because this can still provoke raga and dvesa ; 1 £r (V) ioi-ii. * This concurs with the description of love unfulfilled, ranged into a numeri- cal ' ‘ ' ' Y $odeva(P(Y)). 3 1 * 77-91. 4 Sr(V) 125-33. 5 Sr (M) v. 164-8. 6 SDhA iii. 19- THE SEVEN VYASANAS 251 (2) madya 1 — eating or drinking anything at all which is the pro- duct of fermentation, selling alcohol, sleeping with women who drink alcohol; (3) mamsa 2 — consuming anything which has been kept in leather containers ; (4) vesya 3 — enjoyment of the taurya-trika (vocal and instru- mental music and dancing), idle strolling around, associating with pimps and other disreputable company; (5) paparddhi 4 — making representations of hunting scenes whether on coins or in books or on cloth; (6) caurya 5 — exploiting the favour of a ruler to take property from a rightful heir, concealing anything which forms part of a joint family property; (7) para-dara 6 — seducing an unmarried girl : this specifically in- cludes a condemnation of the gandharva-vivaha. As has been noted the &vetambara sravakacaras do not treat of the vyasanas as a category though these are mentioned casually at times as in the commentary of the Dharma-ratna-prakaranad How- ever, the same condemnations are of course implicit in their teach- ing and sometimes Hemacandra’s 8 verses, for example, parallel very closely those of Amitagati or Vasunandin. THE GATIS If the ultimate aim of escape from the samsara—mok§a is some- times called the fifth gati — is not attained when this life is ex- tinguished there are four possibilities of reincarnation: as a human being again (rnanusya-gati), as an animal (tiryag-gati)> as a celestial being ( deva-gati), or as a denizen of hell (naraka-gati). There is also what might be called a sub-category of the manusya-gati: reincarnation in a bhoga-bhumi, ‘a land of ease’, as distinguished from normal human life, which is passed in a karma-bhumi , aland 0 toil’ 9 ; but in most respects such a fairy-tale world is nearer to life in the deva-loka. The tiryag-gati also includes the possibility of reincarnation in the vegetable kingdom as a vanaspati-kaya. This 2 Ibid. 12. 3 Ibid. ao. s ibid. 21. 6 Ibid. 23. e.g. on madya Y>S iii» 8-12. 9 T (P) ill. 37* 1 SDhA iii. 9-1 1. «■ Ibid. 22. 7 DhRP 7. 252 JAINA YOGA complicated edifice of continuing existence can, it is obvious, respond to the most subtle gradations of merit and demerit, but no lasting bliss is possible except through release from it since life, even in the most exalted realms of the deva-loka , will still be tinged with some sadness. All Jaina writers of course stress the retribution that evil acts bring upon themselves either in this life — sometimes directly through the action of the law when they are of a criminal character, sometimes through supernatural intervention, and sometimes through visitation by disease and other calamities — or through the automatic operation of karma in another incarnation. The Svetam- baras have never apparently felt that the discussion of a future life belonged to the sphere of a sravakacara , but the Digambaras, parti- cularly the popular writers, deal at considerable length with the subject, giving a standardized, but still vivid, picture of hell and of the bhoga-bhumis. While Amrtacandra finds in the ideal of moksa the only incentive to a righteous life Vasunandin 1 expressly states that the masses must be coerced by the fear of punishment and the hope of material reward. Hell 2 is conceived of as a region immeasurably spacious, divided into seven mansions, each of which, it is sometimes said , 3 provides the fitting retribution for one of the seven vy asanas. Mention again is sometimes made of four entries into hell (naraka-dvara) each wide open to receive the perpetrators of specified evil actions. It is a place of mental as well as physical suffering the capacity for which is never exhausted until the appointed incarnation reaches its close for the body of a hell- dweller even when cut to pieces by tortures will always be re-created to suffer anew and the mind will always be open to fear . 4 In hell a jiva becomes spontaneously existent on a surface of ground so rough that he at once gets up only to fall again , 5 Then the demons, whose enmity towards their victims is like that of snake and mongoose, attack him with spears, clubs, tridents, arrows, and swords. The Dharma-rasayana? mentions — but the concept is rather an aberrant one — that those who first strike the, jiva are the beasts that were aforetime slain by him in offerings to the ancestors 1 5 r (V) 239. 55 The Jaina picture of hell is of course very close to the descriptions given in Buddhist and Hindu texts. See Kane, History of Dharma-iastra, iv. 167, 3 Padmanandi-irdvahacara, 12. 4 £r (V) 176; Dharma-rasayana , 71. 5 &r(V) 137. ^ Dharma-rasayana , 25. THE GAT IS 253 and to bloodthirsty divinities. He is put in a flaming pot and as he emerges he is prodded with pikes so that he gnaws his own fingers with the pain; nor do appeals for mercy bring any response from his tormentors . 1 This, according to Vasunandin, is the reward that awaits the gambler . 3 Escaping from this torture he rushes into a mountain ravine imagining that he will find a refuge there but now rocks begin to fall on him, smashing his body into tiny fragments. Yet the severed parts at once reunite like drops of quicksilver. If he has consumed honey and alcohol in a former life he is made to drink molten iron 3 and if has eaten udumbara fruits he must swallow live coals. Next he rushes terrified into a forest only to find that the leaves which fall on him are sharp as swordsh With blood streaming from the gashes he seeks to escape but is seized again by the demons, who hold him down and, cutting off lumps of his flesh, force him to swallow them, jeering as they tell him that this meat will be as sweet as that which he ate in his human life . 5 A red-hot ploughshare is forced into his mouth, and to seek relief from the pain he crawls into a river flowing near by, but its waters are corrosive and at the same time full of putrefaction and blood . 6 When he emerges from it he is pounded like sugar-cane in a press and acid is then applied to his wounds and needles forced under his finger-nails . 7 Then the demons constrain him, if he has com- mitted adultery or fornication, to embrace a statue of red-hot iron ; 8 if he has been guilty of acquisitiveness he must bear a heavy stone on his back, if he has lied his tongue is torn out.® Whatever karma a jiva has bound on himself laughing, that he will not escape by weeping . 10 Next the demons take the forms of vultures or cocks or crows and tear at his flesh with their beaks, whilst others gouge out his eyes or smash in his teeth . 11 Monstrous beasts such as eight-footed jackals come to devour him and he is stung by insects and serpents . 13 Nor is this all: the demons stir up in the minds of the hell-dwellers the memory of former enmities and they fight, tearing each other to pieces . 13 * £r(V) 141-5°. 3 § r ( V ) *43- * Dharma-rasayana , 57. 5 Sr (V) 156-9. 7 Dharma-rasayana, 47-49. 9 Dharma-rasayana , 51-56. 10 Sr (V) 165. 12 Dharma-rasayana, 61-62, ^ gr (V) 151-5. 6 gr (V) 160-2. 8 gr(V) 164-5. ” gr (V) 166-9. *3 gr (V) 170. 254 JAINA YOGA Evil-doing may also be expiated in the tiryag-gati, A jiva may wander through countless incarnations in the most primitive forms of life before attaining to rebirth as a pahcendriya animal which will suffer from mutilations, heavy burdens, lack of food and drink, and separation from its offspring, and which may be killed and eaten . 1 In the mamisya-gati it may happen that a child is abandoned at birth only to die from exposure or starvation, or if it is abandoned later during childhood it will live miserably as a servant in another’s household. Again a man who has given generously to others when he was rich may fall on evil days and not obtain even a plate of gruel when he begs for it. Another may be smitten by a loathsome disease ( papa-roga ) such as leprosy and obliged to live outside the city cut off from friends and kin . 2 But the manusya-gati includes also rebirth in the bhoga-bhumis. The descriptions of these fairy-tale worlds are doubtless an inheri- tance from popular folk-lore but they have been incorporated into the Jaina cosmography and find mention even in the necessarily brief epitome of the Tattvartha-sutra* The Digambara sravak- acara texts are notable for the way in which they link rebirth in the bhoga-bhumis with the performance of dona. No interest is shown in the geographical location of these regions but their classification is linked with that of the patras or recipients of alms so that, for example, giving to an uttama-patra entails rebirth in an uttama-bhoga-bhumi or giving to a hu-patra rebirth in a ku-bhoga- bhiimiS The inhabitants of the uttama-, madhyama -, and jaghanya- bhoga-bhumis are differentiated only by the lustre of their bodies, their height, and their life-span , 5 both of these being expressed with the licence of numerical fantasy. All alike are exempt from the sufferings of disease, untimely accidents, and old age, they feel no pain, mental or physical, and there is no strife among them . 6 Born always together in couples, they attain maturity in forty-nine days 7 and they die a painless death when their children are born, the men expiring with a sneeze, the women with a yawn . 8 The former are endowed with the seventy-two arts and the latter with the sixty-four gunas and both have the thirty-two laksanas 9 and show 1 Sr (V) 177-82. 2 Sr (V) 183-90. 3 T (P) iii. 37- THE GATIS 3SS a very slight development of the kasayas. For this reason when they die they are reborn at once in the deva~loka (whilst the devas of course have only to expect a human or animal incarnation). 1 2 Throughout their long lives all their wants are supplied from ten wish-fulfilling trees ( kalpa-drumas ) : a (1) madyanga — supplying tasty and nutritive drinks; (2) turyanga — supplying musical instruments; (3) bhusananga — supplying ornaments such as ear-rings and diadems ; (4) jyotir-anga—i supplying light more radiant than that of sun or moon; (5) grhanga — supplying houses ; (6) bhdjananga — supplying plates and dishes; (7) dipanga — supplying illumination indoors; (8) vastranga — supplying clothes of silk or fine cloth; (9) malanga — supplying garlands of the finest flowers with the choicest perfumes; (10) bhojananga — supplying the fourfold aliments of the best quality. 3 An incarnation in a ku-bhoga-bhumi resulting from almsgiving to a ku-patra is less desirable. The inhabitants of these regions have no clothes or ornaments or houses and live underneath the trees feeding on their leaves and flowers and sometimes eating an earth which resembles jaggery. 4 Instead of human heads they may have those of lions or elephants or other beasts ; some have horns, some tails, some only one leg, and some again are devoid of speech. 5 Yet they, too, because they are lacking in kasayas , are reborn in the deva - loka> becoming vyantara gods ; as a sequel to this, however, they have a bad human incarnation. 6 The estate of a deva which has been attained by long practice of asceticism and self-control in the human incarnation may yet, through the ripening of karma, bring no abiding happiness. The dwellers in heaven like those on earth are divided into castes separated by even more rigid barriers than among men. Rebirth in one of the categories of servile devas even though human afflictions 1 &r (A) xi. 73-73. 2 Hindu mythology recognizes normally five kalpa-drtwuis. Cf. A.nuxrci-ko$a t , 1, 50. 3 £r (V) 250-7- 4 BhS (°) 537- s Ibid. 542. 6 Ibid. 544- 2 S 6 JAINA YOGA are absent will bring sorrow and vexation from envy at the sight of the more fortunate devas . 1 A jtva who goes to the deva-loka comes into existence spontane- ously in a perfumed upapada-grha. He has a perfumed breath, a flawless body, and unaging youth. As he is thus bom he cannot at first realize where he is, and like one awakened from sleep he ima- gines himself to be dreaming. Then as the apsarases welcome him he comprehends by avadhi-jnana what has occurred. Having bathed and adorned himself he goes at once to the Jaina temple to make puja to the Jina in the same way as this is done on earth but with greater splendour. So he pursues the life of untram- melled pleasure that is the lot of the divine beings, pausing always to make the Jina-puja at the five kalyanas and in the Nandisvara - parvan . 2 It is when six months only of life as a deva remain to him that his great sadness comes. As he sees his clothes and ornaments becoming tarnished he realizes that the time to fall from his lofty estate has come; and he weeps to think that he must pass nine months in an abode of pus and blood — the human womb. Aware that he has no means of escape, that not even the lord of the devas can save him, he formulates the wish in his mind that he may be reborn as an ekendriya . And so even this miserable destiny may come to pass . 3 THE SRAVAKA-GUNAS This treatment of the duties of the ideal layman on the basis of a varying number of qualities characterizing the person apt to receive the Jaina creed and fulfil its teaching enjoyed considerable popu- larity with the later Svetambaras as a means of exposition. A list of thirty-five such qualities or sravaka-gunas universally ascribed to Hemacandra came to be preferred to all others : it is that given in a kulaka of ten verses at the end of the first prakasa of the Yoga- sastraS However, at least two centuries earlier an enumeration of twenty-one sravaka-gunas had figured in the Dharma-ratna- 1 191-4* 2 £r (V) 495-508. 3 &r(V) 195-303. 4 YS x.' 47-56. Windisch, in his editio princeps of the first four prakdsas of the Yoga-idstra , surmised that these verses were an interpolation. THE SRAVAKA-GUlilAS 257 prakarana 1 by 5 anti Suri and may indeed belong to an earlier writer. Vague lists of the virtues which a layman ought to possess must have long been current; they are in fact to be found in the katha literature wherever the excellences of a hero are described. The canonical texts contain enumerations of abstract qualities, good or bad, which perhaps provided the original basis. It seems, however, to have been Haribhadra who first — in the Dharma- bindu z — attempted to lay down in a clear and precise fashion in sutra style the principles of conduct in everyday life which would, if properly observed, make of a man a model sravaka. In his famous kidaka Hemacandra has versified Iiaribhadra’s sutras — or at least those which he found most apt — adding to them almost by way of afterthought a half-dozen epithets from the already current list of Santi Suri. In view of the importance of numerology in Jaina writings it is perhaps worth noting that all the lists of sravaka-gunas (except that of eleven given by the Digambara Amitagati, which will be discussed separately) are couched in multiples of seven. Thus, beside the thirty-five of Hemacandra and the twenty-one of Santi Suri, there are the fourteen sravaka-gunas of A^adhara, 3 against which it would not be unfitting to set the seven virtues of the giver ( datr-guna ) and the seven vy as anas and seven silas.* Though he does not use the term sravaka-guna Haribhadra devotes the whole of the second adhyaya of the Dharma-bindu to a detailed consideration of this subject, which he qualifies as the general ( samanya ) aspect of the householder’s religion, the specific (visesa) aspect being the observance of the mat as and of ritual practices such as puja. Hemacandra expounds his own kidaka in a very extensive prose commentary which serves as a quarry for later writers. The most important of these, Jinamandana belongs to the fifteenth century, but his work, a compilation from earlier sources, will be drawn on for illustration in this study. 1 DhRP 5-7. 1 2 DhB i. 3 SDhAi. 11. 4 It is curious that Mrs. Stevenson, in The Heart of Jainism, failed to realize that the lists of twenty-one and thirty-five both referred to the bavaka-gunas. On p. 244 she offers a translation of Hemacandra’s kulaka under the title: ‘Thirty-five rules of conduct’, and on p. 224 a rather inaccurate rendering of ganti Suri’s list, which she calls ‘those twenty-one qualities which distinguish the Jaina gentleman’. 2 6o JAINA YOGA 1. Possessed of honestly earned wealth (nyaya-sam- panna-vibhavd) Haribhadra 1 lays down that a pious layman should exercise a profession which is beyond reproach and in accordance with family tradition, with due regard for his own substance; for wealth acquired by honest means brings absence from anxiety in this world and leads to a happy reincarnation whilst wrongly acquired wealth has dire consequences like the hook that lodges in the fish’s gullet. Rectitude is the sovereign specific for amassing wealth ( arthapty-upanisad ) because it helps to eliminate evil karma; though fortune may in certain circumstances be amassed by dis- honesty it will only be transient. For Hemacandra 2 honestly earned wealth is money that has not been made by recourse to treason, betrayal of friends, breach of trust, theft, false witness, false weights and measures, or deceitful speech. One can enjoy it without apprehension in one’s own person and give it to one’s friends and kin. Jinamandana 3 says roundly that honest poverty is better than ill-gotten riches, which, according to a popular saying, will last for ten years and then vanish entirely in the eleventh. The practice of this guna excludes the pursuit of the fifteen for- bidden trades and of gambling and alchemy, and implies a high ethical code in business dealings, and generosity in almsgiving and in charity to those in need. 2. Eulogistic of the conduct of the virtuous (sista- cara-prasamsaka) By sista Hemacandra 4 understands ‘men of outstanding qualities who have been schooled by intercourse with the virtuous and the learned’. The qualities to be admired in others are courtesy, grati- tude, cheerfulness in misfortune, modesty in prosperity, fidelity to tradition, and care to avoid ill repute. The essence of this guna is not to be envious of the virtues of others. 3. Wedded to a spouse of the same caste and tradi- tions but not of the same gotra (kula-sila-samaih sarddham anya-gotra-jaih krtodvaha) Hemacandra* understands by sila a common observance of such interdictions as those on drinking wine or eating meat. Jinaman- 1 DhB. i. 7. 2 Yg, p. 145. 3 grGuV, p. 7 <2. 4 Yg, p. 146. 5 Yg, p. 147. THE gRAVAKA-GUNAS a6i dana 1 offers also an alternative explanation: worship of the same devas and guru and performance of the same ceremonies. Muni- candra, the commentator of the Dharma-bindtt , 2 infers from identity of caste and tradition that the parties to a marriage will have the same material situation, mode of dress, and language. If there are differences on these points they will not be happy together and there will be clashes between them. Where a wife, for example, belongs to a family much richer than that of her husband she will tend to be contemptuous of him. Hemacandra, Municandra, and Jinamandana all find occasion to list here the eight forms of mar- riage recognized in the Manu-smrti , with the comment that even the four adharmya forms may be held to be dharmya when there is mutual affection between man and wife. According to Hemacandra 3 there are four ways of guarding women: having wives of good character like one’s mother, not allowing them independence, assigning to them household tasks, and restricting their material possessions. If women are well guarded there will be a properly regulated home, pujd and dana will be rightly performed, and children will be well brought up. 4. Apprehensive of sin (papa-bhiru) This epithet is common even in the oldest Jaina texts and cor- responds to a fundamental concept of the religion. Haribhadra* understands by it the fear of committing offences whether overt or hidden. The former, according to Hemacandra, s would mean adultery, theft, whoring, dicing, and similar disastrous acts and the latter meat-eating and wine-drinking and other such vices, all of which lead to reincarnation in hell. Jinamandana 6 associates with these occasions of stumbling the twenty-two abhaksyas and thirty-two ananta-kayas. This guna figures also in Santi Suri s list. 7 5. Following the reputable custom of the coun- try (prasiddham desacaram samacaran ) Hemacandra 3 understands by desacara the customs prevailing in a particular area in regard to food, clothes, and other aspects of everyday life ; if these were not observed unfortunate consequences 1 SrGuV, P . 13 b . * DhB i. 16. 7 DhRP 13. 2 DhB i. 17. s y£, p. 148. 3 Yg, p. 148. 6 6GuV, p. 19c. z 6z JAINA YOGA might result from public hostility in the area. Jinamandana 1 goes further : he holds that whilst pursuing the dharmacara , the path of religion, one should also fall in with the lokacara , the usages of the world. Since the secular life must of necessity be the basis for all who, living in the world, yet obey the precepts of religion, infrac- tions of the lokacara are to be avoided. 6. Not denigrating other people, particularly rulers (a-varna-vadi na hvapi rajadisu visesatah) Municandra z explains that the word ‘rulers’ is intended to in- clude ministers, court chaplains, and other officials. Hemacandra 3 quotes averse to show that nicair-gotra karma is incurred by express- ing contempt for others and glorifying oneself. Overt denigration, always reprehensible, is dangerous when applied to the great ones of the earth as it may result in loss of life and possessions. Relating this guna to the satya-vrata , Jinamandana 4 sees in it a condemna- tion of envy, calumny, and false accusations. It would seem to cor- respond to the sat-katha of Santi Surf> (in Asadhara sad-gir). A sat-katha is defined as a story which glows with truth and narrates the life of a tirthankara or saint. 7. Dwelling in a place which is not too exposed AND NOT TOO ENCLOSED, WITH GOOD NEIGHBOURS, AND FEW exits ( anativyakte gupte sthane $u-prativesmike aneka- nirgama-dvara-mvarjita-niketana ) Haribhadra 6 lays down that a house should be built in a suitable spot, an unsuitable site being any place where the houses are too close together or too isolated or where there are undesirable neighbours. The construction of the house should be determined by favourable omens and it should not have many exits. If there were many doors ill-disposed people would be able to go in or out unobserved, so jeopardizing the security of goods and chattels and womenfolk. In other words a householder’s home should be well guarded. There should be durva and kusa grass, untainted soil, and a supply of fresh water on the site chosen. In too exposed a position it would be easy for thieves to burgle, whilst in too en- closed a position air and light could not reach it and in the event of fire it could not escape. If the neighbours were undesirable, 1 £rGuV, p. zoa . 2 DhB i. 31. 3 y&, p. 148. 4 3 rGuV, p. 21 b. 5 DhRP 20. 6 DhB i. 22-24. THE gRAVAKA-GUIJIAS 263 such as gamblers, actors, or prostitutes, one’s household would be corrupted by listening to their conversations and seeing their actions. 1 8 . Attached to good moral standards (sad-acaraih krta-sanga) This guna appears to imply no more than the avoidance of evil company. In A^adhara’s list it appears as arya-samiti. 9. Honouring father and mother (mata-pitroh pujaka) Noting that the word ‘mother’ is placed first in the compound because of the very great respect to which she is entitled, Hema- candra 2 explains that respect is to be shown to them by making obeisance at dawn, noon, and dusk, by offering them a puja of flowers and fruit of the finest colour and perfume, by giving them the best of food, clothes, and other material needs, and by seeking their consent for all affairs of importance in life. Jinamandana* extends the concept ‘parents’ to include all persons who by their age or position merit reverence. Asadhara uses the designation yajan guna-gurun for this guna. 10. Eschewing a place of calamity (upaplutam sthdnam tyajan) Hemacandra 2 explains that in a place of calamity, in other words a town or village where famine or disease are endemic, or where there is war between one’s own sovereign and a foreign ruler, the attainment of the tri-varga is impossible; in fact the fund of kdma , artha, and dharma already acquired would be soon dissi- pated. As an upapluta-sthdna Jinamandana 4 cites also a country where there are two rulers or no ruler or where government is carried on in the name of a woman or a child. 11. Not engaging in a reprehensible occupation (garhite ’ pravrtta ) Hemacandra* explains that a practice may be deemed especially reprehensible in one country, such as agriculture in Sauvira, or drinking alcohol in Lata, or among one caste, such as the con- sumption of wine or the sale of sesamum or salt by brahmins, or m I Yg, p. 149. a YS, P. ISO. 3 p. 30&. 4 grGuY, p. 3 Ifl - S Y£, P- IS** 264 JAINA YOGA one family, such as drinking alcohol in the Caulukya family. Jina- mandana 1 states with more precision that caste, country, and family tradition and the age in which one lives are the criteria by which an occupation is to be judged. If, for example, a known Jaina were to take food by night he would make a mockery of his religion. 12. Spending in proportion to one’s income ( vyayam ayocitani kurvari) Spending, says Hemacandra , 2 means the apportioning of one’s substance for the maintenance of one’s dependants, for one’s own comfort and for almsgiving, deva-puja and other purposes, and in- come means what one earns by trading, tilling the soil, or rearing livestock. Jinamandana 3 goes so far as to fix proportions for this division: a man of limited means should divide his income into four shares : one to form a reserve capital, one to be put back into his business, one to be spent for religious purposes and for his own luxuries, and one to be used to provide for his dependants. A rich man, however, could well set aside more than half his income for the dharma and lead a life of frugality on earth . 4 In any event the layman’s duty is fulfilled by wise spending since miserliness merely results in the accumulation of wealth to the detriment of one’s dependants and one’s own self. As Hemacandra 2 points out, if a man is unwilling to spend enough to maintain himself in good health he may be incapacited by sickness from conducting his affairs. 13. Dressing in accordance with one’s income (vesam vittanusaratah kurvan) Hemacandra 3 explains that the scope here is in fact rather wider than the appellation suggests. If a man does not wear clothes and ornaments suitable to his income, age, social condition, coun- try, and caste, he is liable to become a laughing-stock. This guna is closely linked with the preceding one, as a man who out of miserli- ness will not spend his money will also dress in rags, and so, failing to obtain the esteem of his fellow citizens, will be no credit to the 1 fsrGuV, p. 32a, z YS, p. 151. 3 JarGuV, p. 34 b. 4 A division of property in rather different percentages is suggested by Devasena (see BhS(D) 578-80). s Yg, p. 152. THE SRAVAKA-GUtfAS 2 6 S Jaina creed. Jinamandana 1 adds that people should not wear torn or soiled clothes ; for going to the temple they should choose their best apparel whilst avoiding all ostentation. 14. Endowed with the eight kinds of intelligence ( astabhir dhi-gunair yukta ) These are generally in Jaina works enumerated as follows: ( 1 ) desire to listen ( susrusa ) ; (2) listening (sravana ) ; ( 3 ) grasping (grahana ) ; (4) memorizing (dharana ) ; (5) general knowledge (uhd) ; 2 (6) specialized knowledge ( apoha ) ; 2 (7) knowledge of the substance (artha-vijnana) ; (8) knowledge of the essence (tattva-vijnana). To this guna corresponds presumably th tprajna of A&idhara. 15. Listening every day to the sacred doctrine ( dharmam anvaham srnvana) Weariness of spirit is removed, says Hemacandra, 3 by listening every day to the sacred doctrine. It is because of its importance to the religious life that mere listening ( sravana ) is classed as one of the dhi-gunas. 16. Not eating on a full stomach (ajirne bhojana-tyagin) All diseases, according to Hemacandra, 3 have their origin in an accumulation of undigested matter in the intestines resulting from eating on a full stomach. This habit is therefore to be avoided in order to maintain the body in health and fitness for the duties of the religious life. 17. Eating at the right time according to a diet- ary regime (kale bhokta satmyatah) Food is to be eaten when one is hungry — in moderation and without gluttony — for an excess of food only provokes vomiting 1 &rGuV, p. 366. . 2 tJha and apoha are, of course, terms of logic and Hemacandra admits another interpretation of them in this sense. For a discussion of their meaning see Stcherbatskoi in Museon , v. 165-7. 3 P* I S3* 0 787 T 266 JAINA YOGA and diarrhoea. On the other hand to go without food when one is hungry only results in lassitude and aversion to nourishment. The food and drink consumed should be those to which one’s organism is accustomed since childhood and the view should never be taken that a healthy man can digest anything. Gluttony is senseless since the pleasure of taste is only momentary and all food is the same in flavour once it has passed down the throat . 1 The right time for eating is neither the night, the early morning, nor the late evening. A pious man should first ensure that his dependants, servants, and livestock have been fed and then dine himself according to the re- sources of his kitchen. 18. Fulfilling the threefold aim of life without EXCLUDING any OF its elements {anyonya-pratibandhena trimrgam sadhayari) Hemacandra 2 comments at considerable length on the trivarga without which life is no more real than that of the smelter’s bellows which breathes but does not live. To live only for the pleasures of the senses to the exclusion of artha and dharma or to live only for money to the exclusion of kama and dharma lead to endless mis- fortunes whilst the practice of dharma to the complete neglect of artha and hdma is proper for ascetics but not for householders. Artha and kama devoid of dharma lead to great miseries in the cycle of transmigration, dharma and kama without artha result in a heavy burden of debt, and dharma and artha without kama are tantamount to a rejection of the layman’s estate. 19. Diligent in succouring the ascetics, the right- eous, and the needy (yathavad atithau sadhan dine ca prati- patti-krt) This implies the offering with due courtesy of food and drink and other gifts in almsgiving to monks ( patra-dana ) and in charity to those in affliction ( karuna-dana ). 20. Always devoid of evil motives (sadanabhinwista) An abhinimsa is characteristic only of the mean-minded and its absence is one of the five gunas of the third bhava-sravakaJ 1 Yg, p. 154. 2 YS, p . 155. 3 DhRP 45. THE SRAVAKA-GXJIsTAS 267 21. Favourably inclined to virtues (gunesu paksa-patin) By guna here Hemacandra 1 understands benevolence, generosity, readiness to help, patience, and the habit of using courteous and friendly language as well as acts of kindness, as the seed of religious merit is thereby nurtured into growth. This entry on Hemacandra’s list has clearly been borrowed from the guna-ragin of Santi Suri . 2 22. Avoiding action which is inappropriate to time and place (adesakalayos caryam tyajan) Hemacandra 1 explains that anyone who engages in an action at a forbidden time or place will certainly be the victim of some calamity from kings, thieves, or others. 23. Aware of one’s own strength and weaknesses ( balabalam jancin) No undertaking can succeed unless one knows the strength and weakness both of oneself and of others as far as these depend on time and place and circumstances. Like the preceding guna this belongs to the realm of mti. 1 24. Venerating persons of high morality and dis- cernment ( vrtta-stha-j nana-vrddhamm pujaka ) According to Hemacandra 1 vrddha is here to be understood in the sense of old, not in years, but in the faculty of discerning be- tween what should be avoided and what should be approved and in the practice of virtue. Respect expressed by making the anjali, rising and offering a seat should be accorded them because they abound in good counsel. The sam zguna figures in Santi Suri’s list as mddhanuga . 3 25. Supporting one’s dependants (posya-posaka) Municandra 4 explains that the dependants include father and mother, wife and children, and, when the head of the household is rich, any childless sister or aged relative and any friend who has fallen into poverty. It is clear that Haribhadra was here think- ing also of servants and retainers for in succeeding siitras 5 e 1 Yg, P . 157. 4 DhB 37. 3 DhRP 19. 3 DhRP 24 ‘ s DhB 38-41. 268 JAINA YOGA prescribes that a servant should be given suitable work, carefully- supervised in his occupations, and protected from misfortune; if he has to be admonished, care should be had for his self-respect. Jinamandana 1 elaborates a fourfold division of posya: relatives, divinities, preceptors, and oneself; the relatives must be main- tained because otherwise they might be reduced to thieving or vagabondage, thereby bringing discredit on the family. 26. Far-sighted (dirgha-darsiri) The activities of a far-sighted man are described as leading to much profit with little effort, and are widely lauded. This gana belongs also to £anti Suri. 2 27. Discriminating ( visesa-jna ) This for Hemacandra 3 means knowing the difference between what belongs to others and what belongs to oneself, between what is to be done and what is not to be done : a man without discrimina- tion would be indistinguishable from an animal. With this guna , says 3 anti Suri, 4 a man is exempt from the prejudices that stem from love and hate. 28. Grateful (krta-jna) &anti Suri,* too, gives this guna\ he insists particularly on grati- tude to the preceptor for the supreme benefit of the sacred doctrine. Jinamandana 6 classifies all human beings into those very many who are devoid of gratitude ( krta-ghna ), those, still numerous, who are grateful for kindness received {krta-jna), those few who are ready to do a favour in return for a favour ( pratyupakaraka ), and those very few who are ready to do a kindness ( niskaranopakdraka ) without receiving anything in return. 29. Well-liked {loka-vallabha) For Hemacandra 3 this means a man who is well-liked by re- spectable people : if his character and behaviour do not make him popular he may arouse antipathies which will prevent others from finding the path of enlightenment. Santi Suri 7 holds that he should be conspicuous for almsgiving and virtuous conduct and should avoid everything that is contrary to this world or to the next. 1 SrGuV, p. 58 a. 2 DhRP 22. 3 Y$, p. 158. 4 DhRP 23. « DhRP 26. * SrGuV, p. 6a 6. 7 DhRP 11. THE SRAVAKA-GUtfAS *6 9 30. Actuated by a sense of shame (sa-lajja) This guna again belongs also to Santi Suri. 1 It implies that a man’s sense of shame forbids him to commit sinful acts: he will abide by the dhartna cost what it may. 31. Compassionate ( sa-daya ) This guna , again common to Santi Suri,* is of the very essence of Jainism and needs no comment. 32. Gentle in disposition (saumya) This evidently implies that because of his gentle disposition a man may be easily propitiated whilst a man of a different disposi- tion will alienate friends and relations. Because of his gentleness, too, he will eschew cruel occupations. Santi Suri 3 gives this guna as prakrti-saumya. 33. Ready to render service to others ( paropakrti - karmatha) This guna seems to correspond to two entries in Santi Suri’s list : para-hita-karin and su-daksinyaA 34. Intent on avoiding the six adversaries of the soul ( antarangari-sad-varga-parihara-pamyana ) The six enemies are lust ( kama ), anger {krodha), greed ( lobha) } pride (mana), vainglory (mada) i and malicious pleasure (har$a), s Pride means the rejection of salutary advice through arrogance, particularly the refusal to hear the sacred doctrine; vainglory im- plies pride in one’s own family, or personal beauty, or strength, or knowledge ; and malicious pleasure lies in causing unnecessary pain to others or in addiction to such vices as hunting, 6 35. Victorious over the organs of sense (■ vasi-krte - ndriya-grama) Victory over the senses is described as nobler than victory in battle. This guna figures in Asadhara’s list as vasin. Some of the sravaka-gunas of Santi Suri were shown against 1 DhRP 16. 4 DhRP 17. 3 DhRP 10. 4 DhRP 15, *7- 5 With the omission of mada these correspond to the 'five fires’ paitcdgni mentioned by Somadeva (Handiqui, p. 288), 6 Yf§, p, 160. 270 JAINA YOGA those of Hemacandra, to which they correspond. Here is the full list : (1) aksudra — not mean-minded or concerned with trivialities; (2) riipavat — physically well-proportioned. This is under- stood to mean ‘not defective in any of the five senses, of stout bodily constitution, and of sound angas and upangas\ (The angas are eight in number : the head, chest, back, belly, arms and legs, the upangas being the fingers, toes, &c.). The explanation of this guna has caused some difficulty 1 to the commentators, who point out that there have also been good Jainas of misshapen body. It has doubtless been included in the list in imitation of the conventional descriptions of the Tirthankara , who is of surpassing beauty of form. A good physical build is also linked with the capacity to perform feats of asceticism; (3) prakrti-saumya — naturally gentle in disposition and there- fore not apt to bear rancour; (4) loka-priya — well-liked because one is generous, courteous, and well-behaved; (5) akrura — not cruel or evilly disposed ; (6) bhiru — apprehensive of sin; (7) asatha — not deceitful, but reliable; (8) su-daksinya — ready to lay aside one’s own business in order to render service to others ; (9) lajjalu — actuated by a sense of shame so that one avoids evil actions ; (10) dayahi — compassionate ; (ti) madhyastha-saumya-drsti — of serene and unprejudiced out- look; (12) guna-ragin — favourably inclined to virtues; (13) saUkatha — avoiding unprofitable speech, or, more speci- fically, the vi-kathas. The word sat is to be understood as having the significance which attaches to the word satya in the interpretation of the satya-vrata ; (14) su-paksa-yukta — having a proper ambience. In other words one’s family and household should be favourably disposed towards the dharma ; otherwise it will not be properly car- ried out; 1 DhRP 9. THE gRAVAKA-GUNAS * 7I (15) su-dvrgha-darsin — far-sighted so that one undertakes actions which result in good, not harm; (16) visesa-jna — discriminating ; (17) vrddhanuga — following the decisions of men with ripened minds, because old men do not engage in sinful activity; (18) vinita — possessed of vinaya , i.e. offering respect to all those to whom it is due; (19) krta-jna — grateful; (20) para-hitdrtha-karin — devoted to the welfare of others. The possessor of this guna is to be distinguished from the su- daksinya , who helps when his help is sought, by his readi- ness to go out of his way to assist others, and to put them on the right path even if he is not asked; (21) Icibdha-laksa — having achieved one’s goal, i.e. understand- ing the whole dharma. As has been mentioned elsewhere the srnvaka is classified by the categories of nama , sthapana , dravya , and bhava. Now Santi Suri does not confine himself to the discussion of the twenty-one gums but deals more extensively with the bhava-sravaka , who is said to be of six types, each of these being distinguished by various qualities which in fact amount to additional sravaka-gunas, though the term guna is only assigned to a few of them. Here is the full classification : 1, krta-vrata-karman — who carries out the vows: 1 (i) listening with vinaya to the exposition of the vratas by an authoritative teacher; (ii) comprehending the vratas with their bhangas and aticaras ; (iii) accepting the vratas \ (iv) zealously observing the vratas even in adversity. 2. silavat — who is possessed of virtues (sila) : z (i) frequenting the temple ; (ii) avoiding entry into other buildings or houses without due cause; (iii) always soberly dressed; (iv) not speaking under the stress of emotion; * DhRP 34-36. » 2 DhRP 37-1. 272 JAINA YOGA (v) avoiding foolish amusements, which are a form of anartha - danda ; (vi) conducting one’s business in a polite fashion (not using harsh words such as dasi-putra ‘son of a bitch’). 3. gunavat — who is possessed of good qualities ( guna ): x (i) always zealous in svadhyaya; (ii) always zealous in the performance of the daily duties ; (iii) always zealous in vinaya ; (vi) devoid of evil prejudices (abhinivesd) in all activities ; (v) having faith in the Jaina doctrine. 4. rju-vyavaharin — who acts uprightly : 1 2 (i) speaking in accordance with the facts ; (ii) acting without guile ; (iii) pointing out misfortunes which may ensue from a course of action. (There is some uncertainty here: this is also ex- plained as ‘pointing out proper ways of acting, i.e. those taken from textbooks of artha and dharma but not of kama’.) (iv) being genuinely friendly. 5. guru-iuirma — who is obedient to the guru : 3 (i) serving the guru by making pratikramana and preventing hindrance to meditation; (ii) stimulating others to do likewise by praising the guru ; (iii) providing herbs and medicaments for the guru ; (iv) revering the guru. 6. pravacana-kusala — who is expert in the sacred lore : 4 (i) proficient in the recitation of the sutras ; (ii) proficient in the meaning of the sutras ; (iii) proficient in the general rules ( utsarga ) ; (iv) proficient in the special rules ( apavada ) ; (v) proficient in intention ; (vi) proficient in practical application. Santi Suri further describes seventeen ganas or laksanas 5 ) of the bhava-sravaka 1 DhRP 42-46. 2 DhRP 47-48. 4 DhRP 52-55. characteristics (styled which again may be 3 DhRP 49-51. 5 DhRP 56-77. THE SrAVAKA-GUI^AS 373 assimilated to the sravaka-gimas. They are classified under the following heads : (1) stri — he knows the wiles of women; (2) indriya — he keeps a tight rein on the horses of the senses; (3) artha — he realizes that material wealth is transient; (4) samara — he comprehends the insubstantial nature of the visible world, a place of woe; (5) visaya — he is averse to the poison of the senses; (6) arambha — he seeks to avoid harmful activity; (7) gth a — he esteems the household life a bondage; (8) darsana — he maintains right belief; (9) gaddarika-pravaha— he avoids the unreflecting, sheep-like actions of the vulgar herd ; (10) agama-pravrtti — he carries out the amsyakas and other Jaina duties; (1 1) danadi-pravartana— he practises the fourfold dhama to the best of his ability; (12) vihrika— he is not ashamed of performing religious duties; (13) arakta-drsti — he is devoid of desire or of distaste for material things ; (14) madhyastha — he always takes an objective view; (1 5) asambaddha— he is not fettered by the spirit of acquisitive- ( 16 ) pardrtha-kamopabhogin — he continues to enjoy the pleasures of the world only out of consideration for others ; (17) grha-vasa—he remains in the lay estate but with the idea always in mind ‘Today or tomorrow I will abandon it\ like a harlot who is thinking of changing her lover; it is as if he already belonged somewhere else. The enumerations of Santi Suri add nothing new to the content of the srdmkacdra ; they are made up of vague moral qualities inter- spersed with reaffirmations of certain basic precepts of Jainism and are only detailed here for the sake of completeness and because ot the confusing character of certain terms employed. It remains to see to what extent the srSvaka-gunas have 1 a place in the Digambara setting. As has already been noted th fourteen listed by Asadhara represent an u ^.sguised borrowmg from Hemacandra, but a century or so earlier Amitagati had 1 &r (A) vi. 9-1 1. 2?4 JAINA YOGA described the parama-sravaka in eleven epithets which he himself designated as gunas . His enumeration runs as follows : (1) devoid of lust, envy, deceit, anger, backbiting, meanness, and vainglory (kamamya-inaya-matsara-paihmya-dainya- mada-hina ) ; (2) steadfast (dhira) ; (3) of contented mind ( prasanna-citta ) ; (4) fair-spoken (priyammda) ; (5) tender-hearted ( vatsala ) ; (6) competent ( kusala ) ; (7) skilled in discerning what is to be accepted and what eschewed ( heyddeya-patista ) ; (8) ready in mind to adore the guru’s feet (guru- car anaradhano- dyata-manisa ) ; (9) having the taints on one’s heart washed clean by the Jina’s words (Jina-vacana-toya-dhanta-svanta-kalarika) ; (10) apprehensive of the samara (bhava-vibhiru) ; (11) having one’s lust for sensual objects diminished (?nandi- krta-sakala- msaya-krta-grddhi) . There is a chance mention of the sravaka~gunas in Vasunandin 1 but whether this refers to those listed by Amitagati or to some totally different concept it is impossible to say. THE KRIYAS The word kriya is vague and ambiguous and is applied in Jaina texts to practices of various kinds. Here it will be restricted to the rites which have been modelled on, and to some extent correspond to, the Hindu samskaras. 2 It is in the Adi-purana? that the first de- scription of these is to be found though whether Jinasena himself conceived the idea of giving to his co-religionists a framework of ceremonies similar to that which ruled the lives of their Hindu neighbours or whether he merely gave form to concepts which were already current is uncertain. The starting-point for the elaboration 1 &r (V) 389. * Glasenapp (op. cit., pp. 408-19), in discussing the kriyas , treated Jinasena's list rather summarily and concentrated on the Acara-dinakara, for which he accepted too early a date. 3 MP xxxviii. 50-311. THE KRIYAS 275 of the kriyas may well have lain in the narratives of the lives of the Jinas and in the custom of commemorating the five kalyanas asso- ciated with each of them but Hindu or pan-Indian elements dominate those rites which deal with the lay life. 1 Jinasena enumerates for the whole of a man’s life— both as a layman and after taking the vows— a total of fifty-three kriyas. Now this figure has a quite special importance. The Ratna-sara , an early work ascribed to Kundakunda but, probably considerably later, includes the following verse: guna-vaya-tava-sama-padima danam jala-galanam ca anatthamiyam damsana-ndna-carittam kiriya tevanna sdvaya bhaniya 2 This is understood to mean that the 53 kriyas are made up of the 8 mula-ganas, 12 mat as, 12 tapas , samata, 1 1 pratimas, 4 dartas,jala- galana, a-rdtri-bhojana , and the ratna-traya. If this figure of fifty- three kriyas , already current, was familiar to Jinasena a deliberate or unconscious misconstruction of its meaning may have led him to give it a totally different field of application. At the same time the original sense must have been maintained in certain milieux as the verse from the Ratna-sara is quoted, as late as the sixteenth century, by Rajamalla in the Ldti-samhita . 3 Like so many similar blueprints for living, the diagrammatic representation of man’s progress from the cradle to the grave out- lined in the kriyas is, of course, idealized, as the emphasis on the monkish life and on the individual’s gradual rise in the spiritual hierarchy bear witness. Diksa — the acceptance of the monk’s vows — is, by a convenient fiction that goes back to the ^vetambara canon, assumed to be an inevitable stage in the normal human destiny. But the unreality of the overall picture does not impair the validity of Jinasena’s achievement. For the first time in Jaina history the rites de passage are incorporated in the religious frame- work instead of being thrust aside as proper only for the desacara\ the outline of existence is more complete, more rounded, than that offered by any previous Jaina writer. But the price to be paid for this is a considerable one. Hindu ideas and Hindu customs make deep inroads in those Jaina circles where Jinasena is an accepted authority, that is in the tradition represented by Jinasena, Camundaraya, and to some extent by 1 SeeP.V. Kane, op. cit.,vol.ii,pt.i,pp. 188-267- , . .. * Ratna-sara , 153. 3 m^arnhita, inserted after u. 5. 276 JAXNA YOGA Asadhara. But it is not the elaborate pattern of the Adi-purana which is to survive when the Jainas as a community finally lose access to the sources of power. It is rather in the fifteenth-century ^vetambara work, the Acara-dinakara , that we find a picture of the samskaras that is still recognizable, whilst the seventeenth- century Digambara Traivarnikacara , which has retained the names of Jinasena’s kriyas (at least of those which relate to the lay life), describes in fact virtually the same rites as those given in the Acara- dinakara. Of the fifty-three kriyas the majority record stages in the ascetic’s progress and only the first twenty-two are germane to the present study: they are listed below together with those noted by Vard- hamana and those in fact described by Somasena: Adi-purana Acara-dinakara Traivarnikacara (i) garbhadhana garbhadhana (3) priti moda (3) supriti garbhadhana (4) dhyti purnsavana (5) moda pumsavana (6) priyodbhava (jata- jati-karman suci-karman karman) (7) nama-karman nama-karman (8) bahir-yana (suryendu-dar^ana) (ksiragana) bahir-yana (9) nisadya ^uci-karman (nama-karapa) (10) anna-prasana anna-pradana anna-prasana (ij) vyu?fi (karnn-vedha) (12) kesa-vapa (caula- ch^a-karana caula-karman karman) (13) lipi-samkhyana a d hy ay anarambha lipi-sainkhyana (and pustaka-grahana) (14) upaniti upanayana upanayana (15) vrata-carya vrata-carya (16) vratavatarana vrataropa vratavatarana (17) vivaha vivaha vivaha (18) varpa-labha variia-labha (19) ltula-carya kula-carya (20) grhisita grhisita (21) praSanti prasanti (23) grha-tyaga grha-tyaga (23) dik$a (antya-samskara) dik§a 1. Garbhadhana This, as described by Jinasena, 1 is in effect a ritual coitus for the sake of begetting a son. It must take place at the rtu , that is when 1 MPxxxviii. 69-76. THE KRIYAS 277 the woman has taken her purifying bath after the cessation of the catamenia. Three cakras are placed on the right of the Jina image, three chattras on the left, and three holy fires in front. Husband and wife, reciting mantras , carry out the Jina-piija and then make oblations to the three fires as was done, says Jinasena , 1 * at the nirvana of the Jina. They are then to copulate without passion for the sake of procreation. The details furnished by the Traivarnikacara z are worth noting if only as evidence of the inroads of Hinduism during the seven centuries which separate Somasena from Jinasena. The garbha- dhana is envisaged — as was no doubt Jinasena’s intention— as an act of religious preparation by day followed by a ritual coitus by night. Before intercourse the woman is to bathe her pudenda with the panca-gavya and the man to say a prayer to the goddess of the yoni\ and during the act he is to think on the Jina and recite the namaskara. Amongst the beliefs noted are the need to light a candle — copulation in the dark causes poverty — to wear green, and to chew betel. Sexual congress during the period immediately after men- struation described as the kama-yajna for laymen is not only sug- gested but made obligatory, since— and here the Hindu influence shows itself at its strongest— if the couple fail to approach each other during the rtu they will be submerged with the pitrs in a ter- rible hell. In the Acara-dinakara 3 the garbhadhana is given quite a different meaning : it is a ceremony performed in the fifth month after con- ception to strengthen the foetus in the womb. Vardhamana lays down that like all other kriyds up to and including vivaha it may be performed either by a Jaina brahmin or by a k$nllaka (here used in its modern sense of a layman in the eleventh pratima) and does not require the presence of a sadhu. 2. Priti This ceremony is performed in the third month of pregnancy by brahmins who are prtta . The Jina-puja is to be made with mantras , an arch (torana) being erected over the door and two full water vessels (kalasa) placed alongside it. If the householder has the means he should arrange for the playing of drums and the sounding of bells . 4 1 MPxxxviii. 72. 3 ADK, pp. sb-6a. 2 TrA viii. 29-51. 4 MP xxxviii. 77~79- z yS JAINA YOGA The Traivarnikacara mentions the names only of this and the two following kriyas without giving details. 3. Supriti This is carried out in the fifth month by good laymen paramo- pasaka ) who are su-prita. Like the garbhadhana it is to take place in the presence of the fires kindled before the Jina image . 1 4. Dhrti This is to be performed in the seventh month and once again by layman and in accordance with the same ritual. Its purpose is to strengthen the foetus in the womb . 2 5. Moda Jinasena prescribes that this ceremony is to take place a little before the completion of the ninth month, being performed by brahmins in order to fatten the foetus (garbha-pustyai). The woman is decked in her ornaments and made to wear a gatrika-bandha (apparently a girdle on which mantras have been written) as well as a bracelet to serve as a phylactery . 3 The moda described by Somasena 4 would seem more properly to correspond to the priti of Jinasena since it is performed in the third month. The woman rubs her body with oil, bathes with water, takes a fruit in her hand, and makes the Jina-puja . Then together with her husband she goes to the temple to make the eightfold piija to the arhats, and to the yaks as and yaksims. The man touches her and ties a yantra to her neck. The ceremony, which really in time sequence corresponds to the moda , is, in the Acara-dinakaraf the pumsavana, a direct borrow- ing from Hinduism designed essentially to ensure the birth of a son. Vardhamana lays down that this is to be carried out in the eighth month from conception when all the pregnancy longings ( dohala ) have been fulfilled and the breasts are full of milk. The woman is clad in new clothes and taken outdoors by night whilst mantras intended to ensure an easy delivery are recited. Gifts of money and sweetmeats are distributed. On this occasion the presence of the husband is not essential. That Vardhamana’ s description of this 1 MP xxxviii. 80-8 1. 2 Ibid. 8a. 3 Ibid. 83-84. 4 TrA viii. 5-62. 5 ADK, pp. 86-Q&. THE KRIYAS 2?9 kriya has a connexion with the moda seems suggested by the epithet tac-charira-purm-bham-pramoda-mpam ‘expressing the joy that her body is full* used in the opening sentence. 6. Priyodbhava or Jata-karman The details of this, the birth ceremony are, according to Jinasena, 1 too extensive to be given in his Adi-purana and may be found in the Upasakadhyayana . The essential features are the reciting of mantras and meditation on the birth of the Jina. In the Acara-dinakara 2 the main preoccupation at birth is the horoscope. Whilst the woman is in labour in the sutika-grha the guru should wait with the astrologer near at hand praying to the paramesthins. The astrologer must be informed of the exact moment of birth in order to cast the horoscope. A prayer is made to the goddess Ambika to guard the child. No largesse is to be dis- tributed on this occasion because of the birth impurity. Vardhamana describes a number of ceremonies following upon the birth for which there are no parallels in the Adi-purana . These include the ksirasana 3 or putting of the infant to suck, the suryendu- darsana + or solemn showing of the sun and moon to the mother and newly born child, and the sasti-samkara? or adoration of the eight goddesses who are called ‘the mothers'. When the birth pollution is at an end — its duration varies with a person’s caste — mother and child and all the members of the family bathe and the purification ceremony or hci-kaman 6 is celebrated. 7. Nama-karman Twelve days after the birth at an auspicious time for parents and child a name that will prosper the family is to be conferred on the child. This is to be chosen from among the 1,008 names of the Jina by the ghata-pattra method, that is, by drawing from a pot filled with scraps of paper on which names have been written, one name at hazard. 7 The Trawarnikdcara 8 says that this is to be performed on the twelfth, sixteenth, twentieth, or thirty-second day after birth or at the first anniversary. The father writes down the name praying to the lord of a 1,008 names and then makes an offering to the yaksas. 1 MP xxxviii. 85-86. 4 ADK, pp. 7 MP xxxviii. 87-89. z ADK, pp. 9&-10&. 3 ADK, p. 120. 5 ADK 126-136. 6 ADK 140-14*. 8 TrAviii. 1 11-25. 2 8o JAINA YOGA In the Acara-dinakara 1 the family has to assemble with the guru and astrologer on the same day as the suci-karman or a day or so later. After the horoscope has been exhibited the guru whispers to an aunt the name agreed on by the family. Then after a Jina- piija at home or in the temple she makes known this name. 8. Bahir-yana This ceremony takes place from two to four months after birth when for the first time the child is taken outdoors by the mother or the nurse. The gifts he receives on that occasion from his kins- folk are kept and only handed over to him when he assumes the administration of his father’s estate . 2 Somasena 3 understands by the bahir-yana (performed in the first, third, or fourth month of life) the child’s first visit to the temple with his parents and kinsfolk. In honour of the occasion gifts of clothing are made to the sangha and there is a general distribution of betel. 9. Nisadya In this ceremony the child is seated on a specially adorned couch whilst puja is made to the Jina . 4 The name only is mentioned by Somasena. 10. Anna-pra^ana This is the weaning ceremony placed by Jinasena 5 in the seventh or eighth month and again accompanied by a puja. Somasena 6 gives the additional detail that after the puja the child is put on the father’s lap and given some rice mixed with sugar, milk, and ghee to eat. The Acara-dmakara 7 places this ceremony in the sixth month for a boy and in the fifth month for a girl. Various types of grain and fruits belonging to the region are offered in puja to the Jina. The image is then bathed with the pancamrta , some of which is given to the child. Offerings are then set before the family divinity and the mother puts some of this consecrated food in the child’s mouth. 1 ADR 14&-15&. 3 TrA viii. 126-30. 5 Ibid. 95. 7 ADR i6a-i66. z MP xxx viii. 90-92. 4 MP xxxviii. 93-94. 6 TrA viii. 136-9. THE KRIYAS 281 11. VYUSTI or VARSA-VARDHANA This ceremony, which takes place a year later, comprises puja, distribution of largesse, and the feasting of kinsfolk . 1 It, too, receives only a bare mention in the Traivarnikacara. 12 . Ke6a-vapa or Caula-karman After the child has been sprinkled with scented water his head is shaved : whether or not a top-knot is left depends on his caste. When he has been bathed and anointed and his best ornaments put on he is made to reverence the munis and is given a benediction by his kinsfolk . 2 Somasena 3 says that this kriya should be performed in the first, third, fifth, or seventh year of age. If the previous kriyas have been neglected a penance should first be carried out. It should not be done at a time when the mother is pregnant again or else she will have a miscarriage or bring forth a still-born child. The same limits of age are prescribed by the Acara-dinakara 4 * for the karna-vedha or ear-piercing ceremony which symbolically renders the child receptive to the Jaina teaching. The caula - karman 5 is to follow at an unspecified date after this, a complete tonsure being prescribed for siidras , and the top-knot being left in the case of the higher castes. Food, clothes, and begging-bowls are to be distributed to the monks and clothes and ornaments given to the barber. 13. Lipi-samkhyana At the age of five the child is to begin to learn to read and write and a learned layman is to be engaged as teacher . 6 Somasena? divides this kriya into two : lipi-samkhydna and pustaka-grahana. The accompanying puja is directed to Sarasvati. 14. UPANlTI 8 This, the initiation or investiture, coincides with the conferment of the vows by which a boy is dedicated to the life of a student (all he has learned hitherto is to read and write). These he must assume 1 MP xxxviii. 96-97. 3 TrAviii. 147-62. s ADK, pp. i8a-i8&. 7 TrAviii. 163-81. 8 Asadhara describes this kriya in similar details (SDhA vii. 20). 2 Ibid. 98-roi. 4 ADK, pp. lya-ijb. 6 MP xxxviii. 102-3- the Sagdra-dharmdmftay giving exactly 0 737 U 282 JAINA YOGA in the Jaina temple after making piija at the same time that he puts on the girdle of munja grass (maimji-bandha). He will be wearing a top-knot, will be clad in a white loincloth and a white outer cloth, and will have no ornaments but will be given the sacred thread which is symbolic of his vows. He may take a new name suitable for this way of life. He must live by begging his food: a boy of princely family may, however, satisfy this requirement by begging food from the women’s apartments of the palace; but in any event the best of what he obtains in this way must be first offered in puja to the Jina, The recommended age for this ceremony is the eighth year from conception. 1 The Acara- din akara 2 makes it clear that the upaniti is only for the higher castes ; for brahmins study begins at eight, for ksatriyas at ten, for vaisyas at twelve, terminating in all cases at sixteen. 15. Vrata-carya During the period passed in study the maimji-bandha in three coils about the loins stands for the ratna-traya , the white loincloth symbolizes the purity of the arhats , the yajhopavita on the chest signifies the seven parama-sthanas , and the perfect tonsure rein- forces the tonsure of mind, speech, and body. The brahmacarin must keep the five anu-vratas . Toothpicks, betel, and collyrium are forbidden to him and he must bathe only with water without using perfumes. He must not lie on a bed but directly on the ground, and his body must not have contact with other bodies. He must study first of all the duties of a layman and then philosophy, grammar, metrics, artha-sastra, astrology, divination, and mathematics. 3 16. Vratavatarana On the conclusion of his studies he drops the special vows but abides by the ordinary vows, observing for his life long the mula- gunas. With the permission of his guru he assumes clothes, orna- ments, and garlands. Though he may abandon the vow of absti- nence from luxuries he should continue to keep the vow of sexual continence until the next kriya. If he belongs to a caste which lives by weapons he may retain them either for the sake of his livelihood or for outward show. 4 1 MP xxxviii. 104-8. 3 MP xxxviii. 109-20. 2 ADK, p. 186. 4 Ibid. 121-6. THE KRIYAS 283 17. VlVAHA With his guru’s permission the young man is now able to marry a girl from a suitable family. Members of the higher castes must mak Qpuja to the Jina and perform the marriage ceremony in a holy spot before fire. For seven days after the wedding the couple should have no sexual relations ; they should go away to another region, if possible to a place of pilgrimage and then return home with great pomp. At the proper time, i.e, at the rtu , they should copulate for the procreation of children. 1 As has already been noted the oldest texts avoid all mention of marriage, and both Digambaras and Svetambaras take over Hindu customs, often following local usages. In general from Hemacandra’s time onwards the eight forms of marriage recog- nized by the Hindu dharma-sastras are listed, despite the fact that some of them run counter to Jaina ethics: Asadhara 2 in fact has bluntly characterized the gandharm-vivaha as a secondary mani- festation of the vyasana of whoring. In the sphere of number magic it might not be inappropriate here to point out the signifi- cance of the number 4, or more often 8, in connexion with marriage. The ideal age of marriage is sixteen for a man, twelve for a girl, or else twenty for a man and sixteen for a girl. In the popular tales a young man, if a merchant, is usually married to eight girls at the same time, whilst kings have a harem of 16,000 wives. The Sraddha-guna-vivarana? records sixteen desirable cha- racteristics in a potential wife and sixteen undesirable ones. Certain aspects of marriage, at least from the Svetambara angle, have already been noted in discussing the sravaka-gunas. Vard- hamana adds little to these rather general considerations though he would appear to advocate pre-puberty marriage, 4 but gives a picture of the pomp of the ceremonies involved. He would regard the prajapatya-vivaha as the only form of marriage both desirable and possible in the present age. . The Traivarnikacara 5 recognizes five phases m the marriage: (i) the formal undertaking ( vag-dana ): the bride’s father says: T will give my daughter’. The bridegroom’s father replies: ‘I accept’; 1 MP xxxviii. 127-34- 3 grGuV i 7 < 3 -i 8